The Role of Nitric Oxide in Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes.

The legume-rhizobia symbiosis is an important process in agriculture because it allows the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) which contributes to increasing the levels of nitrogen in the soil. Nitric oxide (⋅NO) is a small free radical molecule having diverse signaling roles in plants. Here we present and discuss evidence showing the role of ⋅NO during different stages of the legume-rhizobia interaction such as recognition, infection, nodule development, and nodule senescence. Although the mechanisms by which ⋅NO modulates this interaction are not fully understood, we discuss potential mechanisms including its interaction with cytokinin, auxin, and abscisic acid signaling pathways. In matures nodules, a more active metabolism of ⋅NO has been reported and both the plant and rhizobia participate in ⋅NO production and scavenging. Although ⋅NO has been shown to induce the expression of genes coding for NITROGENASE, controlling the levels of ⋅NO in mature nodules seems to be crucial as ⋅NO was shown to be a potent inhibitor of NITROGENASE activity, to induce nodule senescence, and reduce nitrogen assimilation. In this sense, LEGHEMOGLOBINS (Lbs) were shown to play an important role in the scavenging of ⋅NO and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), potentially more relevant in senescent nodules. Even though ⋅NO can reduce NITROGENASE activity, most reports have linked ⋅NO to positive effects on BNF. This can relate mainly to the regulation of the spatiotemporal distribution of ⋅NO which favors some effects over others. Another plausible explanation for this observation is that the negative effect of ⋅NO requires its direct interaction with NITROGENASE, whereas the positive effect of ⋅NO is related to its signaling function, which results in an amplifier effect. In the near future, it would be interesting to explore the role of environmental stress-induced ⋅NO in BNF.

Structure and specificity of several triclocarban-binding single domain camelid antibody fragments.

The variable VHH domains of camelid single chain antibodies have been useful in numerous biotechnology applications due to their simplicity, biophysical properties, and abilities to bind to their cognate antigens with high affinities and specificity. Their interactions with proteins have been well-studied, but considerably less work has been done to characterize their ability to bind haptens. A high-resolution structural study of three nanobodies (T4, T9, and T10) which have been shown to bind triclocarban (TCC, 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea) with near-nanomolar affinity shows that binding occurs in a tunnel largely formed by CDR1 rather than a surface or lateral binding mode seen in other nanobody-hapten interactions. Additional significant interactions are formed with a non-hypervariable loop, sometimes dubbed "CDR4". A comparison of apo and holo forms of T9 and T10 shows that the binding site undergoes little conformational change upon binding of TCC. Structures of three nanobody-TCC complexes demonstrated there was not a standard binding mode. T4 and T9 have a high degree of sequence identity and bind the hapten in a nearly identical manner, while the more divergent T10 binds TCC in a slightly displaced orientation with the urea moiety rotated approximately 180° along the long axis of the molecule. In addition to methotrexate, this is the second report of haptens binding in a tunnel formed by CDR1, suggesting that compounds with similar hydrophobicity and shape could be recognized by nanobodies in analogous fashion. Structure-guided mutations failed to improve binding affinity for T4 and T9 underscoring the high degree of natural optimization.

Single-Domain Antibodies As Versatile Affinity Reagents for Analytical and Diagnostic Applications.

With just three CDRs in their variable domains, the antigen-binding site of camelid heavy-chain-only antibodies (HcAbs) has a more limited structural diversity than that of conventional antibodies. Even so, this does not seem to limit their specificity and high affinity as HcAbs against a broad range of structurally diverse antigens have been reported. The recombinant form of their variable domain [nanobody (Nb)] has outstanding properties that make Nbs, not just an alternative option to conventional antibodies, but in many cases, these properties allow them to reach analytical or diagnostic performances that cannot be accomplished with conventional antibodies. These attributes include comprehensive representation of the immune specificity in display libraries, easy adaptation to high-throughput screening, exceptional stability, minimal size, and versatility as affinity building block. Here, we critically reviewed each of these properties and highlight their relevance with regard to recent developments in different fields of immunosensing applications.

Isolation of alpaca anti-hapten heavy chain single domain antibodies for development of sensitive immunoassay.

Some unique subclasses of Camelidae antibodies are devoid of the light chain, and the antigen binding site is comprised exclusively of the variable domain of the heavy chain (VHH). Although conventional antibodies dominate current assay development, recombinant VHHs have a high potential as alternative reagents for the next generation of immunoassay. We expressed VHHs from an immunized alpaca and developed a VHH-based immunoassay using 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA), a major metabolite of pyrethroid insecticides as a model system. A phage VHH library was constructed, and seven VHH clones were selected by competitive binding with 3-PBA. The best immunoassay developed with one of these VHHs showed an IC(50) of 1.4 ng/mL (limit of detection (LOD) = 0.1 ng/mL). These parameters were further improved by using the phage borne VHH, IC(50) = 0.1 ng/mL and LOD = 0.01 ng/mL. Both assays showed a similar tolerance to methanol and dimethylsulfoxide up to 50% in assay buffer. The assay was highly specific to 3-PBA and its 4-hydroxylated derivative, 4-hydroxy 3-PBA, (150% cross reactivity) with negligible cross reactivity with other tested structural analogues, and the recovery from spiked urine sample ranged from 80 to 112%. In conclusion, a highly specific and sensitive VHH for 3-PBA was developed using sequences from immunized alpaca and phage display technology for antibody selection.

Competitive selection from single domain antibody libraries allows isolation of high-affinity antihapten antibodies that are not favored in the llama immune response.

Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) found in camelids lack a light chain, and their antigen-binding site sits completely in the heavy-chain variable domain (VHH). Their simplicity, thermostability, and ease in expression have made VHHs highly attractive. Although this has been successfully exploited for macromolecular antigens, their application to the detection of small molecules is still limited to a very few reports, mostly describing low-affinity VHHs. Using triclocarban (TCC) as a model hapten, we found that conventional antibodies, IgG1 fraction, reacted with free TCC with a higher relative affinity (IC(50) 51.0 ng/mL) than did the sdAbs (IgG2 and IgG3, 497 and 370 ng/mL, respectively). A VHH library was prepared, and by elution of phage with limiting concentrations of TCC and competitive selection of binders, we were able to isolate high-affinity clones, K(D) 0.98-1.37 nM (SPR), which allowed development of a competitive assay for TCC with an IC(50) = 3.5 ng/mL (11 nM). This represents a 100-fold improvement with regard to the performance of the sdAb serum fraction, and it is 100-fold better than the IC(50) attained with other antihapten VHHs reported thus far. Despite the modest overall antihapten sdAbs response in llamas, a small subpopulation of high-affinity VHHs is generated that can be isolated by careful design of the selection process.