Transcriptome analysis in various cell lines exposed to nitric oxide.

Nitric oxide (NO) plays a physiological role in signal transduction and excess or chronic NO has toxic effects as an inflammatory mediator. NO reversibly forms protein S-nitrosylation and exerts toxicological functions related to disease progression. DNA methyltransferases, epigenome-related enzymes, are inhibited in enzymatic activity by S-nitrosylation. Therefore, excess or chronic NO exposure may cause disease by altering gene expression. However, the effects of chronic NO exposure on transcriptome are poorly understood. Here, we performed transcriptome analysis of A549, AGS, HEK293T, and SW48 cells exposed to NO (100 µM) for 48 hr. We showed that the differentially expressed genes were cell-specific. Gene ontology analysis showed that the functional signature of differentially expressed genes related to cell adhesion or migration was upregulated in several cell lines. Gene set enrichment analysis indicated that NO stimulated inflammation-related gene expression in various cell lines. This finding supports previous studies showing that NO is closely involved in inflammatory diseases. Overall, this study elucidates the pathogenesis of NO-associated inflammatory diseases by focusing on changes in gene expression.

Characterization of pathological changes in the olfactory system of mice exposed to methylmercury.

Methylmercury (MeHg) is a well-known environmental neurotoxicant that causes severe brain disorders such as Minamata disease. Although some patients with Minamata disease develop olfactory dysfunction, the underlying pathomechanism is largely unknown. We examined the effects of MeHg on the olfactory system using a model of MeHg poisoning in which mice were administered 30 ppm MeHg in drinking water for 8 weeks. Mice exposed to MeHg displayed significant mercury accumulation in the olfactory pathway, including the nasal mucosa, olfactory bulb, and olfactory cortex. The olfactory epithelium was partially atrophied, and olfactory sensory neurons were diminished. The olfactory bulb exhibited an increase in apoptotic cells, hypertrophic astrocytes, and amoeboid microglia, mainly in the granular cell layer. Neuronal cell death was observed in the olfactory cortex, particularly in the ventral tenia tecta. Neuronal cell death was also remarkable in higher-order areas such as the orbitofrontal cortex. Correlation analysis showed that neuronal loss in the olfactory cortex was strongly correlated with the plasma mercury concentration. Our results indicate that MeHg is an olfactory toxicant that damages the central regions involved in odor perception. The model described herein is useful for analyzing the mechanisms and treatments of olfactory dysfunction in MeHg-intoxicated patients.

Attenuation of protein arginine dimethylation via S-nitrosylation of protein arginine methyltransferase 1.

Upregulation of nitric oxide (NO) production contributes to the pathogenesis of numerous diseases via S-nitrosylation, a post-translational modification of proteins. This process occurs due to the oxidative reaction between NO and a cysteine thiol group; however, the extent of this reaction remains unknown. S-Nitrosylation of PRMT1, a major asymmetric arginine methyltransferase of histones and numerous RNA metabolic proteins, was induced by NO donor treatment. We found that nitrosative stress leads to S-nitrosylation of cysteine 119, located near the active site, and attenuates the enzymatic activity of PRMT1. Interestingly, RNA sequencing analysis revealed similarities in the changes in expression elicited by NO and PRMT1 inhibitors or knockdown. A comprehensive search for PRMT1 substrates using the proximity-dependent biotin identification method highlighted many known and new substrates, including RNA-metabolizing enzymes. To validate this result, we selected the RNA helicase DDX3 and demonstrated that arginine methylation of DDX3 is induced by PRMT1 and attenuated by NO treatment. Our results suggest the existence of a novel regulatory system associated with transcription and RNA metabolism via protein S-nitrosylation.

Nuclear SphK2/S1P signaling is a key regulator of ApoE production and Aß uptake in astrocytes.

The link between changes in astrocyte function and the pathological progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) has attracted considerable attention. Interestingly, activated astrocytes in AD show abnormalities in their lipid content and metabolism. In particular, the expression of apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a lipid transporter, is decreased. Because ApoE has anti-inflammatory and amyloid ß (Aß)-metabolizing effects, the nuclear receptors, retinoid X receptor (RXR) and LXR, which are involved in ApoE expression, are considered promising therapeutic targets for AD. However, the therapeutic effects of agents targeting these receptors are limited or vary considerably among groups, indicating the involvement of an unknown pathological factor that modifies astrocyte and ApoE function. Here, we focused on the signaling lipid, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), which is mainly produced by sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2) in the brain. Using astrocyte models, we found that upregulation of SphK2/S1P signaling suppressed ApoE induction by both RXR and LXR agonists. We also found that SphK2 activation reduced RXR binding to the APOE promoter region in the nucleus, suggesting the nuclear function of SphK2/S1P. Intriguingly, suppression of SphK2 activity by RNA knockdown or specific inhibitors upregulated lipidated ApoE induction. Furthermore, the induced ApoE facilitates Aß uptake in astrocytes. Together with our previous findings that SphK2 activity is upregulated in AD brain and promotes Aß production in neurons, these results indicate that SphK2/S1P signaling is a promising multifunctional therapeutic target for AD that can modulate astrocyte function by stabilizing the effects of RXR and LXR agonists, and simultaneously regulate neuronal pathogenesis.

Methyl vinyl ketone and its analogs covalently modify PI3K and alter physiological functions by inhibiting PI3K signaling.

Reactive carbonyl species (RCS), which are abundant in the environment and are produced in vivo under stress, covalently bind to nucleophilic residues such as Cys in proteins. Disruption of protein function by RCS exposure is predicted to play a role in the development of various diseases such as cancer and metabolic disorders, but most studies on RCS have been limited to simple cytotoxicity validation, leaving their target proteins and resulting physiological changes unknown. In this study, we focused on methyl vinyl ketone (MVK), which is one of the main RCS found in cigarette smoke and exhaust gas. We found that MVK suppressed PI3K-Akt signaling, which regulates processes involved in cellular homeostasis, including cell proliferation, autophagy, and glucose metabolism. Interestingly, MVK inhibits the interaction between the epidermal growth factor receptor and PI3K. Cys656 in the SH2 domain of the PI3K p85 subunit, which is the covalently binding site of MVK, is important for this interaction. Suppression of PI3K-Akt signaling by MVK reversed epidermal growth factor-induced negative regulation of autophagy and attenuated glucose uptake. Furthermore, we analyzed the effects of the 23 RCS compounds with structures similar to MVK and showed that their analogs also suppressed PI3K-Akt signaling in a manner that correlated with their similarities to MVK. Our study demonstrates the mechanism of MVK and its analogs in suppressing PI3K-Akt signaling and modulating physiological functions, providing a model for future studies analyzing environmental reactive species.

The Pursuit of the "Inside" of the Amyloid Hypothesis-Is C99 a Promising Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer's Disease?

Aducanumab, co-developed by Eisai (Japan) and Biogen (U.S.), has received Food and Drug Administration approval for treating Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, its successor antibody, lecanemab, has been approved. These antibodies target the aggregated form of the small peptide, amyloid-ß (Aß), which accumulates in the patient brain. The "amyloid hypothesis" based therapy that places the aggregation and toxicity of Aß at the center of the etiology is about to be realized. However, the effects of immunotherapy are still limited, suggesting the need to reconsider this hypothesis. Aß is produced from a type-I transmembrane protein, Aß precursor protein (APP). One of the APP metabolites, the 99-amino acids C-terminal fragment (C99, also called ßCTF), is a direct precursor of Aß and accumulates in the AD patient's brain to demonstrate toxicity independent of Aß. Conventional drug discovery strategies have focused on Aß toxicity on the "outside" of the neuron, but C99 accumulation might explain the toxicity on the "inside" of the neuron, which was overlooked in the hypothesis. Furthermore, the common region of C99 and Aß is a promising target for multifunctional AD drugs. This review aimed to outline the nature, metabolism, and impact of C99 on AD pathogenesis and discuss whether it could be a therapeutic target complementing the amyloid hypothesis.

Pivotal role for S-nitrosylation of DNA methyltransferase 3B in epigenetic regulation of tumorigenesis.

DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) catalyze methylation at the C5 position of cytosine with S-adenosyl-L-methionine. Methylation regulates gene expression, serving a variety of physiological and pathophysiological roles. The chemical mechanisms regulating DNMT enzymatic activity, however, are not fully elucidated. Here, we show that protein S-nitrosylation of a cysteine residue in DNMT3B attenuates DNMT3B enzymatic activity and consequent aberrant upregulation of gene expression. These genes include Cyclin D2 (Ccnd2), which is required for neoplastic cell proliferation in some tumor types. In cell-based and in vivo cancer models, only DNMT3B enzymatic activity, and not DNMT1 or DNMT3A, affects Ccnd2 expression. Using structure-based virtual screening, we discovered chemical compounds that specifically inhibit S-nitrosylation without directly affecting DNMT3B enzymatic activity. The lead compound, designated DBIC, inhibits S-nitrosylation of DNMT3B at low concentrations (IC50 ≤ 100 nM). Treatment with DBIC prevents nitric oxide (NO)-induced conversion of human colonic adenoma to adenocarcinoma in vitro. Additionally, in vivo treatment with DBIC strongly attenuates tumor development in a mouse model of carcinogenesis triggered by inflammation-induced generation of NO. Our results demonstrate that de novo DNA methylation mediated by DNMT3B is regulated by NO, and DBIC protects against tumor formation by preventing aberrant S-nitrosylation of DNMT3B.

Alterations in UPR Signaling by Methylmercury Trigger Neuronal Cell Death in the Mouse Brain.

Methylmercury (MeHg), an environmental toxicant, induces neuronal cell death and injures specific areas of the brain. MeHg is known to induce oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway has a dual nature in that it regulates and protects cells from an overload of improperly folded proteins in the ER, whereas excessively stressed cells are eliminated by apoptosis. Oxidative stress/ER stress induced by methylmercury exposure may tilt the UPR toward apoptosis, but there is little in vivo evidence of a direct link to actual neuronal cell death. Here, by using the ER stress-activated indicator (ERAI) system, we investigated the time course signaling alterations of UPR in vivo in the most affected areas, the somatosensory cortex and striatum. In the ERAI-Venus transgenic mice exposed to MeHg (30 or 50 ppm in drinking water), the ERAI signal, which indicates the activation of the cytoprotective pathway of the UPR, was only transiently enhanced, whereas the apoptotic pathway of the UPR was persistently enhanced. Furthermore, detailed analysis following the time course showed that MeHg-induced apoptosis is strongly associated with alterations in UPR signaling. Our results suggest that UPR modulation could be a therapeutic target for treating neuropathy.

Lipid flippase dysfunction as a therapeutic target for endosomal anomalies in Alzheimer's disease.

Endosomal anomalies because of vesicular traffic impairment have been indicated as an early pathology of Alzheimer'| disease (AD). However, the mechanisms and therapeutic targets remain unclear. We previously reported that ßCTF, one of the pathogenic metabolites of APP, interacts with TMEM30A. TMEM30A constitutes a lipid flippase with P4-ATPase and regulates vesicular trafficking through the asymmetric distribution of phospholipids. Therefore, the alteration of lipid flippase activity in AD pathology has got attention. Herein, we showed that the interaction between ßCTF and TMEM30A suppresses the physiological formation and activity of lipid flippase in AD model cells, A7, and AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F model mice. Furthermore, the T-RAP peptide derived from the ßCTF binding site of TMEM30A improved endosomal anomalies, which could be a result of the restored lipid flippase activity. Our results provide insights into the mechanisms of vesicular traffic impairment and suggest a therapeutic target for AD.

Ex vivo analysis platforms for monitoring amyloid precursor protein cleavage.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative brain disorder and the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. The presence of large numbers of senile plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and cerebral atrophy is the characteristic feature of AD. Amyloid ß peptide (Aß), derived from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), is the main component of senile plaques. AD has been extensively studied using methods involving cell lines, primary cultures of neural cells, and animal models; however, discrepancies have been observed between these methods. Dissociated cultures lose the brain's tissue architecture, including neural circuits, glial cells, and extracellular matrix. Experiments with animal models are lengthy and require laborious monitoring of multiple parameters. Therefore, it is necessary to combine these experimental models to understand the pathology of AD. An experimental platform amenable to continuous observation and experimental manipulation is required to analyze long-term neuronal development, plasticity, and progressive neurodegenerative diseases. In the current study, we provide a practical method to slice and cultivate rodent hippocampus to investigate the cleavage of APP and secretion of Aß in an ex vivo model. Furthermore, we provide basic information on Aß secretion using slice cultures. Using our optimized method, dozens to hundreds of long-term stable slice cultures can be coordinated simultaneously. Our findings are valuable for analyses of AD mouse models and senile plaque formation culture models.

Covalent N-arylation by the pollutant 1,2-naphthoquinone activates the EGF receptor.

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is the most intensively investigated receptor tyrosine kinase. Several EGFR mutations and modifications have been shown to lead to abnormal self-activation, which plays a critical role in carcinogenesis. Environmental air pollutants, which are associated with cancer and respiratory diseases, can also activate EGFR. Specifically, the environmental electrophile 1,2-naphthoquinone (1,2-NQ), a component of diesel exhaust particles and particulate matter more generally, has previously been shown to impact EGFR signaling. However, the detailed mechanism of 1,2-NQ function is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that 1,2-NQ is a novel chemical activator of EGFR but not other EGFR family proteins. We found that 1,2-NQ forms a covalent bond, in a reaction referred to as N-arylation, with Lys80, which is in the ligand-binding domain. This modification activates the EGFR-Akt signaling pathway, which inhibits serum deprivation-induced cell death in a human lung adenocarcinoma cell line. Our study reveals a novel mode of EGFR pathway activation and suggests a link between abnormal EGFR activation and environmental pollutant-associated diseases such as cancer.

Spatiotemporal analysis of the UPR transition induced by methylmercury in the mouse brain.

Methylmercury (MeHg), an environmental toxicant, induces neuronal cell death and injures a specific area of the brain. MeHg-mediated neurotoxicity is believed to be caused by oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress but the mechanism by which those stresses lead to neuronal loss is unclear. Here, by utilizing the ER stress-activated indicator (ERAI) system, we investigated the signaling alterations in the unfolded protein response (UPR) prior to neuronal apoptosis in the mouse brain. In ERAI transgenic mice exposed to MeHg (25 mg/kg, S.C.), the ERAI signal, which indicates activation of the cytoprotective pathway of the UPR, was detected in the brain. Interestingly, detailed ex vivo analysis showed that the ERAI signal was localized predominantly in neurons. Time course analysis of MeHg exposure (30 ppm in drinking water) showed that whereas the ERAI signal was gradually attenuated at the late phase after increasing at the early phase, activation of the apoptotic pathway of the UPR was enhanced in proportion to the exposure time. These results suggest that MeHg induces not only ER stress but also neuronal cell death via a UPR shift. UPR modulation could be a therapeutic target for treating neuropathy caused by electrophiles similar to MeHg.

S-Nitrosylation at the active site decreases the ubiquitin-conjugating activity of ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 D1 (UBE2D1), an ERAD-associated protein.

S-Nitrosylation of protein cysteine thiol is a post-translational modification mediated by nitric oxide (NO). The overproduction of NO causes nitrosative stress, which is known to induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. We previously reported that S-nitrosylation of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and the ER stress sensor inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) decreases their enzymatic activities. However, it remains unclear whether nitrosative stress affects ER-associated degradation (ERAD), a separate ER stress regulatory system responsible for the degradation of substrates via the ubiquitin-proteasomal pathway. In the present study, we found that the ubiquitination of a known ERAD substrate, serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (SGK1), is attenuated by nitrosative stress. C-terminus of Hsc70-interacting protein (CHIP) together with ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 D1 (UBE2D1) are involved in this modification. We detected that UBE2D1 is S-nitrosylated at its active site, Cys85 by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Furthermore, in vitro and cell-based experiments revealed that S-nitrosylated UBE2D1 has decreased ubiquitin-conjugating activity. Our results suggested that nitrosative stress interferes with ERAD, leading to prolongation of ER stress by co-disruption of various pathways, including the molecular chaperone and ER stress sensor pathways. Given that nitrosative stress and ER stress are upregulated in the brains of patient with Parkinson's disease (PD) and of those with Alzheimer's disease (AD), our findings may provide further insights into the pathogenesis of these neurodegenerative disorders.

Attenuation of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor-Stimulated Signaling via S-Nitrosylation.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a key signaling molecule that has various effects via S-nitrosylation, a reversible post-translational modification that affects the enzymatic activity, localization, and metabolism of target proteins. As chronic nitrosative stress correlates with neurodegeneration, the targets have received focused attention. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) plays a pivotal role in the induction of gene expression to control inflammatory responses. MIF acts as a ligand for CD74 receptor and activates the Src-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade. MIF also elevates the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which contributes to the viability of neurons. Here, we show that MIF is S-nitrosylated by a physiological NO donor. Interestingly, the induction of S-nitrosylation resulted in a loss of MIF activity following stimulation of the Src and p38 MAPK signaling pathways and the induction of BDNF expression. Our results shed light on the pathogenic mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

The Emerging Role of Electrophiles as a Key Regulator for Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Stress.

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is activated by the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which is called ER stress. ER stress sensors PERK, IRE1, and ATF6 play a central role in the initiation and regulation of the UPR; they inhibit novel protein synthesis and upregulate ER chaperones, such as protein disulfide isomerase, to remove unfolded proteins. However, when recovery from ER stress is difficult, the UPR pathway is activated to eliminate unhealthy cells. This signaling transition is the key event of many human diseases. However, the precise mechanisms are largely unknown. Intriguingly, reactive electrophilic species (RES), which exist in the environment or are produced through cellular metabolism, have been identified as a key player of this transition. In this review, we focused on the function of representative RES: nitric oxide (NO) as a gaseous RES, 4-hydroxynonenal (HNE) as a lipid RES, and methylmercury (MeHg) as an environmental organic compound RES, to outline the relationship between ER stress and RES. Modulation by RES might be a target for the development of next-generation therapy for ER stress-associated diseases.

TMEM30A is a candidate interacting partner for the ß-carboxyl-terminal fragment of amyloid-ß precursor protein in endosomes.

Although the aggregation of amyloid-ß peptide (Aß) clearly plays a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD), endosomal traffic dysfunction is considered to precede Aß aggregation and trigger AD pathogenesis. A body of evidence suggests that the ß-carboxyl-terminal fragment (ßCTF) of amyloid-ß precursor protein (APP), which is the direct precursor of Aß, accumulates in endosomes and causes vesicular traffic impairment. However, the mechanism underlying this impairment remains unclear. Here we identified TMEM30A as a candidate partner for ßCTF. TMEM30A is a subcomponent of lipid flippase that translocates phospholipids from the outer to the inner leaflet of the lipid bilayer. TMEM30A physically interacts with ßCTF in endosomes and may impair vesicular traffic, leading to abnormally enlarged endosomes. APP traffic is also concomitantly impaired, resulting in the accumulation of APP-CTFs, including ßCTF. In addition, we found that expressed BACE1 accumulated in enlarged endosomes and increased Aß production. Our data suggested that TMEM30A is involved in ßCTF-dependent endosome abnormalities that are related to Aß overproduction.

Functional analysis of juxta- and intra-membrane domains of murine APP by genome editing in Neuro2a cells.

Amyloid-ß precursor protein (APP) correlates with the pathogenesis of certain brain diseases, such as Alzheimer disease (AD). APP is cleaved by several enzymes to produce APP metabolites, including the amyloid beta peptide (Aß), which accumulates in the brain of AD patients. However, the exact functions of APP metabolites remain elusive. In this study, using genome editing technology, we mutated juxta- and intra-membrane domains of murine APP in the mouse neuroblastoma cell line, Neuro2a. We identified several clones that expressed characteristic patterns of APP metabolites. Mutations in juxta- (deletion 673A), and intra-membrane (deletion 705-6LM) domains of APP, decreased overall levels of APP metabolites or decreased the level of α-secretase-cleaved carboxy-terminal fragment (αCTF), respectively. APP is known to influence neuronal differentiation; therefore, we used theses clones to dissect the function of APP metabolites during neuronal differentiation. One clone (CA), which expressed reduced levels of both FL-APP and αCTF, showed increased expression of the neuronal marker, ß3-tubulin, and enhanced retinoic acid (RA)-induced neurite outgrowth. In contrast, a clone that expressed FL-APP, but was devoid of αCTF (CE), showed comparable expression of ß3-tubulin and neurite outgrowth compared with normal Neuro2a cells. These data indicate that FL-APP is a suppressor of neurite outgrowth. Our data suggest a novel regulatory function of juxta- and intra-membrane domains on the metabolism and function of APP.

Modulation of Unfolded Protein Response by Methylmercury.

Methylmercury (MeHg) results in cell death through endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Previously, we reported that MeHg induces S-mercuration at cysteine 383 or 386 in protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), and this modification induces the loss of enzymatic activity. Because PDI is a key enzyme for the maturation of nascent protein harboring a disulfide bond, the disruption in PDI function by MeHg results in ER stress via the accumulation of misfolded proteins. However, the effects of MeHg on unfolded protein response (UPR) sensors and their signaling remain unclear. In the present study, we show that UPR is regulated by MeHg. We found that MeHg specifically attenuated inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α)-x-box binding protein 1 (XBP1) branch, but not the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) and activating transcriptional factor 6 (ATF6) branches. Treatment with GSK2606414, a specific PERK inhibitor, significantly inhibited MeHg-induced cell death. These findings suggest that MeHg exquisitely regulates UPR signaling involved in cell death.

Consecutive Analysis of BACE1 Function on Developing and Developed Neuronal Cells.

The amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP) is cleaved by a transmembrane protease termed ß-site AßPP cleavage enzyme (BACE1), which is being explored as a target for therapy and prevention of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although genetic deletion of BACE1 results in abolished amyloid pathology in AD model mice, it also results in neurodevelopmental phenotypes such as hypomyelination and synaptic loss, observed in schizophrenia and autism-like phenotype. These lines of evidence indicate that the inhibition of BACE1 causes adverse side effects during the neurodevelopmental stage. However, the effects of the inhibition of BACE1 activity on already developed neurons remain unclear. Here, we utilized hippocampal slice cultures as an ex vivo model that enabled continuous and long-term analysis for the effect of BACE1 inhibition on neuronal circuits and synapses. Temporal changes in synaptic proteins in hippocampal slices indicated acute synaptic loss, followed by synapse formation and maintenance phases. Long-term BACE1 inhibition in the neurodevelopmental stage caused the loss of synaptic proteins but failed to alter synaptic proteins in the already developed maintenance stage. These data indicate that BACE1 function on synapses is dependent on synaptic developmental stages, and our study provides a useful model to observe the long-term effect of BACE1 activity in the brain, and to evaluate adverse effects of BACE inhibitors.

Synthetic ceramide analogues increase amyloid-ß 42 production by modulating γ-secretase activity.

γ-Secretase cleaves amyloid ß-precursor protein (APP) to generate amyloid-ß peptide (Aß), which is a causative molecule of Alzheimer disease (AD). The C-terminal length of Aß, which is determined by γ-secretase activity, determines the aggregation and deposition profiles of Aß, thereby affecting the onset of AD. In this study, we found that the synthetic ceramide analogues dl-threo-1-phenyl-2-decanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol (PDMP) and (1S,2R-d-erythro-2-N-myristoylamino)-1-phenyl-1-propanol (DMAPP) modulated γ-secretase-mediated cleavage to increase Aß42 production. Unexpectedly, PDMP and DMAPP upregulated Aß42 production independent of alteration of ceramide metabolism. Our results propose that synthetic ceramide analogues function as novel γ-secretase modulators that increase Aß42, and this finding might lead to the understanding of the effect of the lipid environment on γ-secretase activity.