ABSTRACT
The major therapeutic end points of general anesthesia include hypnosis, amnesia, and immobility. There is a complex relationship between general anesthesia, responsiveness, hemodynamic stability, and reaction to noxious stimuli. This complexity is compounded in pediatric anesthesia, where clinicians manage children from a wide range of ages, developmental stages, and body sizes, with their concomitant differences in physiology and pharmacology. This renders anesthetic requirements difficult to predict based solely on a child's age, body weight, and vital signs. Electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring provides a window into children's brain states and may be useful in guiding clinical anesthesia management. However, many clinicians are unfamiliar with EEG monitoring in children. Young children's EEGs differ substantially from those of older children and adults, and there is a lack of evidence-based guidance on how and when to use the EEG for anesthesia care in children. This narrative review begins by summarizing what is known about EEG monitoring in pediatric anesthesia care. A key knowledge gap in the literature relates to a lack of practical information illustrating the utility of the EEG in clinical management. To address this gap, this narrative review illustrates how the EEG spectrogram can be used to visualize, in real time, brain responses to anesthetic drugs in relation to hemodynamic stability, surgical stimulation, and other interventions such as cardiopulmonary bypass. This review discusses anesthetic management principles in a variety of clinical scenarios, including infants, children with altered conscious levels, children with atypical neurodevelopment, children with hemodynamic instability, children undergoing total intravenous anesthesia, and those undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. Each scenario is accompanied by practical illustrations of how the EEG can be visualized to help titrate anesthetic dosage to avoid undersedation or oversedation when patients experience hypotension or other physiological challenges, when surgical stimulation increases, and when a child's anesthetic requirements are otherwise less predictable. Overall, this review illustrates how well-established clinical management principles in children can be significantly complemented by the addition of EEG monitoring, thus enabling personalized anesthesia care to enhance patient safety and experience.
Subject(s)
Anesthesiology , Anesthetics , Hypotension , Infant , Adult , Humans , Child , Adolescent , Child, Preschool , Anesthesia, General/adverse effects , ElectroencephalographyABSTRACT
The ilioinguinal-iliohypogastric (IG-IH) nerve block provides effective opioid-sparing analgesia for inguinal surgeries. The technique is especially useful in apnoea-prone premature neonates with sacral anomalies and coagulopathy. A recent retrospective review of 82 ex-premature neonates who underwent inguinal herniotomy at KK Women's and Children's Hospital, Singapore, reported a success rate of 89% for landmark-guided IG-IH blocks. All blocks in that study were performed by senior paediatric anaesthetists using the landmark-based technique, which relies on fascial clicks. The IG-IH block is expected to be technically more difficult in neonates. There is also a stronger need to ensure success in these patients in order to avoid the use of opioids and reduce the risk of postoperative apnoea. Ultrasonographic guidance has been reported to improve the success of IG-IH blocks in older children to up to 94%. Herein, we report a series of six ex-premature neonates in whom ultrasonography-guided IG-IH blocks were successfully performed using reduced volumes of local anaesthetics (mean volume 0.17 mL/kg) for inguinal herniotomy.
