State of the art of trauma teams in Italy: A nationwide study.

Trauma teams play a vital role in providing prompt and specialized care to trauma patients. This study aims to provide a comprehensive description of the presence and organization of trauma teams in Italy. A nationwide cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted between July and October 2022, involving interviews with 137 designated trauma centers. Centers were stratified based on level: higher specialized trauma centers (CTS), intermediate level trauma centers (CTZ + N) and district general hospital with trauma capacity (CTZ). A standardized structured interview questionnaire was used to gather information on hospital characteristics, trauma team prevalence, activation pathways, structure, components, leadership, education, and governance. Descriptive statistics were used for analysis. Results showed that 53 % of the centers had a formally defined trauma team, with higher percentages in CTS (73 %) compared to CTZ + N (49 %) and CTZ (39 %). The trauma team activation pathway varied among centers, with pre-alerts predominantly received from emergency medical services. The study also highlighted the lack of formally defined massive transfusion protocols in many centers. The composition of trauma teams typically included airway and procedure doctors, nurses, and healthcare assistants. Trauma team leadership was predetermined in 59 % of the centers, with anesthesiologists/intensive care physicians often assuming this role. The study revealed gaps in trauma team education and governance, with a lack of specific training for trauma team leaders and low utilization of simulation-based training. These findings emphasize the need for improvements in trauma management education, governance, and the formalization of trauma teams. This study provides valuable insights that can guide discussions and interventions aimed at enhancing trauma care at both local and national levels in Italy.

Logistic and cognitive-emotional barriers experienced by first responders when alarmed to get dispatched to out-of-hospital cardiac arrest events: a region-wide survey.

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is a major public health concern with low survival rates. First responders (FRs) and public access defibrillation (PAD) programs can significantly improve survival, although barriers to response activation persist. The Emilia Romagna region in Italy has introduced a new system, the DAE RespondER App, to improve the efficiency of FR dispatch in response to OHCA. The study aimed to evaluate the association between different logistic factors, FRs' perceptions, and their decision to accept or decline dispatch to an OHCA scene using the DAE RespondER App. A cross-sectional web survey was conducted, querying 14,518 registered FRs using the DAE RespondER app in Emilia Romagna. The survey explored logistic and cognitive-emotional perceptions towards barriers in responding to OHCAs. Statistical analysis was conducted, with responses adjusted using non-response weights. 4,644 responses were obtained (32.0% response rate). Among these, 1,824 (39.3%) had received at least one dispatch request in the past year. Multivariable logistic regression showed that being male, having previous experience with OHCA situations, and having an automated external defibrillator (AED) available at the moment of the call were associated with a higher probability of accepting the dispatch. Regarding FRs' perceptions, logistic obstacles were associated with mission rejection, while higher scores in cognitive-emotional obstacles were associated with acceptance. The study suggests that both logistical and cognitive-emotional factors are associated with FRs' decision to accept a dispatch. Addressing these barriers and further refining the DAE RespondER App can enhance the effectiveness of PAD programs, potentially improving survival rates for OHCA. The insights from this study can guide the development of interventions to improve FR participation and enhance overall OHCA response systems.

Effects of 24/7 palliative care consultation availability on the use of emergency department and emergency medical services resources from non-oncological patients: a before-and-after observational cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: The non-oncological population is relatively under-represented among end-of-life (EOL) patients managed by palliative care (PC) services, and the effects of different PC delivery models are understudied in this population.This retrospective observational study on routinely collected data aimed at evaluating the effects of the extension from workday-only to 24/7 mixed hands-on and advisory home PC service on emergency department (ED) access and emergency medical services (EMS) interventions needed by non-oncological patients during their last 90 days of life, and their probability to die in hospital. METHODS: A before-and-after design was adopted comparing preimplementation and postimplementation periods (2018-2019 and 2021-22).We used a difference-in-differences approach to estimate changes in ED access and EMS intervention rates in the postintervention period through binomial negative regression. The oncological population, always exposed to 24/7 PC, was used as a control. A robust Poisson regression model was adopted to investigate the differences regarding hospital mortality. The analyses were adjusted for age, sex and disease grouping by the system involved. Results were reported as incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and ORs. RESULTS: A total of 2831 patients were enrolled in the final analysis.After the implementation of 24/7 home PC, both ED admissions (IRR=0.390, p<0.001) and EMS interventions (IRR=0.413, p<0.001) dropped, as well as the probability to die in hospital (OR=0.321, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The adoption of a 24/7 mixed hands-on and advisory model of home PC could have relevant effects in terms of ED access and EMS use by non-oncological EOL patients under PC. TRIAL REGISRATION NUMBER: NCT05640076.

Diagnostic accuracy for hemoperitoneum, influence on prehospital times and time-to-definitive treatment of prehospital FAST: A systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Focused assessment sonography for trauma (FAST) performed in the prehospital setting may improve trauma care by influencing treatment decisions and reducing time to definitive care, but its accuracy and benefits remain uncertain. This systematic review evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of prehospital FAST in detecting hemoperitoneum and its effects on prehospital time and time to definitive diagnosis or treatment. METHODS: We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane library up to November 11th, 2022. Studies investigating prehospital FAST and reporting at least one outcome of interest for this review were considered eligible. The primary outcome was prehospital FAST diagnostic accuracy for hemoperitoneum. A random-effect meta-analysis, including individual patient data, was performed to calculate the pooled outcomes with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Quality of studies was assessed using the QUADAS-2 tool for diagnostic accuracy. RESULTS: We included 21 studies enrolling 5790 patients. The pooled sensitivity and specificity of prehospital FAST for hemoperitoneum were 0.630 (0.454 - 0.777) and 0.970 (0.957-0.979), respectively. Prehospital FAST was performed in a median of 2.72 (2.12 - 3.31) minutes without increasing prehospital times (pooled median difference of 2.44 min [95% CI: -3.93 - 8.81]) compared to standard management. Prehospital FAST findings changed on-scene trauma care in 12-48% of cases, the choice of admitting hospital in 13-71%, the communication with the receiving hospital in 45-52%, and the transfer management in 52-86%. Patients with a positive prehospital FAST achieved definitive diagnosis or treatment more rapidly (severity-adjusted pooled time ratio = 0.63 [95% CI: 0.41 - 0.95]) compared with patients with a negative or not performed prehospital FAST. CONCLUSIONS: Prehospital FAST had a low sensitivity but a very high specificity to identify hemoperitoneum and reduced time-to-diagnostics or interventions, without increasing prehospital times, in patients with a high probability of abdominal bleeding. Its effect on mortality is still under-investigated.

Factors influencing prehospital physicians' decisions to initiate advanced resuscitation for asystolic out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients.

BACKGROUND: The decision to initiate or continue advanced life support (ALS) in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) could be difficult due to the lack of information and contextual elements, especially in non-shockable rhythms. This study aims to explore factors associated with clinicians' decision to initiate or continue ALS and the conditions associated with higher variability in asystolic patients. METHODS: This retrospective observational study enrolled 2653 asystolic patients on whom either ALS was attempted or not by the emergency medical services (EMS) physician. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to find the factors associated with the decision to access ALS. A subgroup analysis was performed on patients with a predicted probability of ALS between 35% and 65%. The single physician's behaviour was compared to that predicted by the model taking into account the entire agency. RESULTS: Age, location of event, bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation and EMS-witnessed event were independent factors influencing physicians' choices about ALS. Non-medical OHCA, younger patients, less experienced physicians, presence of breath activity at the emergency call and a longer time for ALS arrival were more frequent among cases with an expected higher variability in behaviours with ALS. Significant variability was detected between physicians. CONCLUSIONS: Significant inter-physician variability in access to ALS could be present within the same EMS, especially among less experienced physicians, non-medical OHCA and in presence of signs of life during emergency call. This arbitrariness has been observed and should be properly addressed by EMS team members as it raises ethical issues regarding the disparity in treatment.

Multicentre observational study on practice of prehospital management of hypotensive trauma patients: the SPITFIRE study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Major haemorrhage after injury is the leading cause of preventable death for trauma patients. Recent advancements in trauma care suggest damage control resuscitation (DCR) should start in the prehospital phase following major trauma. In Italy, Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS) assist the most complex injuries and deliver the most advanced interventions including DCR. The effect size of DCR delivered prehospitally on survival remains however unclear. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: This is an investigator-initiated, large, national, prospective, observational cohort study aiming to recruit >500 patients in haemorrhagic shock after major trauma. We aim at describing the current practice of hypotensive trauma management as well as propose the creation of a national registry of patients with haemorrhagic shock. PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: the exploration of the effect size of the variation in clinical practice on the mortality of hypotensive trauma patients. The primary outcome measure will be 24 hours, 7-day and 30-day mortality. Secondary outcomes include: association of prehospital factors and survival from injury to hospital admission, hospital length of stay, prehospital and in-hospital complications, hospital outcomes; use of prehospital ultrasound; association of prehospital factors and volume of first 24-hours blood product administration and evaluation of the prevalence of use, appropriateness, haemodynamic, metabolic and effects on mortality of prehospital blood transfusions. INCLUSION CRITERIA: age >18 years, traumatic injury attended by a HEMS team including a physician, a systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg or weak/absent radial pulse and a confirmed or clinically likely diagnosis of major haemorrhage. Prehospital and in-hospital variables will be collected to include key times, clinical findings, examinations and interventions. Patients will be followed-up until day 30 from admission. The Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended will be collected at 30 days from admission. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study has been approved by the Ethics committee 'Comitato Etico di Area Vasta Emilia Centro'. Data will be disseminated to the scientific community by abstracts submitted to international conferences and by original articles submitted to peer-reviewed journals. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04760977.

External validation and insights about the calibration of the return of spontaneous circulation after cardiac arrest (RACA) score.

Background: The return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) after cardiac arrest (RACA) score was developed as a tool to predict ROSC probability (pROSC) based on easily available information and it could be useful to compare the performances of different EMS agencies or the effects of eventual interventions.We performed an external validation of the RACA score in a cohort of out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients managed by the EMS of the metropolitan city of Bologna, Italy. Methods: We analyzed data from 2,310 OHCA events prospectively collected between January 2009 and June 2021. Discrimination was assessed with the area under the ROC curve (AUROC), while the calibration belts were used for the comparison of observed versus expected ROSC rates. The AUROCs from our cohort and other validation cohorts were compared using a studentized range test. Results: The AUROC for the study population was 0.691, comparable to that described by previous validation studies. Despite an acceptable overall calibration, we found a poor calibration for asystole and low pROSC ranges in PEA and shockable rhythms. The model showed a good calibration for patients aged over 80, while no differences in performance were found when evaluating events before and after the implementation of 2015 ERC guidelines. Conclusions: Despite AUROC values being similar in different validation studies for RACA score, we suggest separating the different rhythms when assessing ROSC probability with the RACA score, especially for asystole.

Resuscitative Endovascular Balloon Occlusion of the Aorta (REBOA) in Non-Traumatic Cardiac Arrest: A Narrative Review of Known and Potential Physiological Effects.

Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) is widely used in acute trauma care worldwide and has recently been proposed as an adjunct to standard treatments during cardiopulmonary resuscitation in patients with non-traumatic cardiac arrest (NTCA). Several case series have been published highlighting promising results, and further trials are starting. REBOA during CPR increases cerebral and coronary perfusion pressure by increasing the afterload of the left ventricle, thus improving the chances of ROSC and decreasing hypoperfusion to the brain. In addition, it may facilitate the termination of malignant arrhythmias by stimulating baroreceptor reflex. Aortic occlusion could mitigate the detrimental neurological effects of adrenaline, not only by increasing cerebral perfusion but also reducing the blood dilution of the drug, allowing the use of lower doses. Finally, the use of a catheter could allow more precise hemodynamic monitoring during CPR and a faster transition to ECPR. In conclusion, REBOA in NTCA is a feasible technique also in the prehospital setting, and its use deserves further studies, especially in terms of survival and good neurological outcome, particularly in resource-limited settings.

[Is it time to implement Cardiac Arrest Centers in Italy? The integrated experience in the decade 2009-2019 between metropolitan area and Maggiore Hospital of Bologna]. / È il momento per implementare i Centri per l'Arresto Cardiaco in Italia? L'esperienza integrata nel decennio 2009-2019 tra area metropolitana ed Ospedale Maggiore di Bologna.

Cardiac arrest (CA) is the third cause of death in Europe. This paper highlights the various treatments for the prevention and early management of CA and provides an overview of available evidence on the CA center concept. The experience of Maggiore Hospital of Bologna, Italy over the last 11 years is also outlined along with the treatments applied to patients with CA and their impact on improving outcomes. The new concept of the "Systems Saving Lives" approach is presented as a potential way for implementing Italian healthcare systems involved in the management of CA patients. Finally, the future perspective of implementation of CA centers in Italy is also described encouraging the healthcare professionals involved in the treatment of CA patients to consider a multidisciplinary approach (including a cardiologist, emergency physician, neurologist, physiatrist, radiologist, and intensivist).

The role of prehospital ultrasound in reducing time to definitive care in abdominal trauma patients with moderate to severe liver and spleen injuries.

BACKGROUND: The role of prehospital focused assessment sonography for trauma (FAST) is still under debate and no definitive recommendations are available in actual guidelines, moreover, the availability of ultrasound machines in emergency medical services (EMS) is still inhomogeneous. On the other hand, time to definitive care is strictly related to survival in bleeding trauma patients. This study aimed at investigating if a positive prehospital FAST in abdominal trauma patients could have a role in reducing door-to-CT scan or door-to-operating room (OR) time. METHODS: This retrospective observational study included all the patients affected by an abdominal trauma with an abdominal abbreviated injury score ≥ 2 and a spleen or liver injury admitted to Maggiore Hospital Carlo Alberto Pizzardi, a level 1 trauma centre between 2014 and 2019. Prehospital and emergency department (ED) clinical and laboratory variables were collected, as well as in-hospital times during the diagnostic and therapeutic pathways of these patients. RESULTS: 199 patients were included in the final analysis. Of these, 44 had a prehospital FAST performed and in 27 of them, peritoneal free fluid was detected in the prehospital setting, while 128 out of 199 patients had a positive ED-FAST. Sensitivity was 62.9% (95% CI: 42.4%-80.6%) and specificity 100% (95% CI: 80.5% - 100%). Patients with a positive prehospital FAST reported a significantly lower door-to-CT or door-to-OR median time (46 vs 69 min, p < 0.001). Prehospital hypotension and Glasgow coma scale, first arterial blood lactate, ISS, age, positive prehospital and ED FAST were inserted in a stepwise selection for a multivariable Cox proportional regression hazards model. Only ISS and prehospital FAST resulted significantly associated with a reduction in the door-to-CT scan or door-to-operating theatre time in the multivariable model. CONCLUSION: Prehospital FAST information of intraperitoneal free fluid could significantly hasten door-to-CT scan or door-to-operating theatre time in abdominal trauma patients if established hospital response protocols are available. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, (Therapeutic / Care Management).

New Early Warning Score: EMS Off-Label Use in Out-of-Hospital Patients.

BACKGROUND: The National Early Warning Score (NEWS) is an assessment scale of in-hospital patients' conditions. The purpose of this study was to assess the appropriateness of a potential off-label use of NEWS by the emergency medical system (EMS) to facilitate the identification of critical patients and to trigger appropriate care in the pre-hospital setting. METHODS: A single centre, longitudinal, prospective study was carried out between July and August 2020 in the EMS service of Bologna. Home patients with age ≥ 18 years old were included in the study. The exclusion criterion was the impossibility to collect all the parameters needed to measure NEWS. RESULTS: A total of 654 patients were enrolled in the study. The recorded NEWS values increased along with the severity of dispatch priority code, the EMS return code, the emergency department triage code, and with patients' age (r = 0.135; p = 0.001). The aggregated value of NEWS was associated with an increased risk of hospitalization (OR = 1.30 (1.17; 1.34); p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: This study showed that the use of NEWS in the urgent and emergency care services can help patient assessment while not affecting EMS crew operation and might assist decision making in terms of severity-code assignment and resources utilization.

Resuscitative endovascular occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) for refractory out of hospital cardiac arrest. An Utstein-based case series.

AIMS: Out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is still a leading cause of mortality worldwide. In recent years, resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) has been progressively studied as an adjunct to standard advanced life support (ALS) in both traumatic and non-traumatic refractory OHCA. Since January 2019, the REBOA procedure has been applied to all the patients experiencing both traumatic and non-traumatic refractory OHCA (≥15 min of cardiopulmonary resuscitation) not eligible for ECPR for clinical or logistic reasons. We aimed at describing the feasibility and effects of REBOA performed both in the Emergency Department and in the pre-hospital environment served by the local HEMS for refractory OHCA. METHODS: Twenty consecutive patients experiencing refractory OHCA and in whom REBOA was attempted in 2019 and 2020 were included in the study, Utstein data and REBOA specific variables were recorded. RESULTS: Successful catheter placement was achieved in 18 out of 20 patients, 11 of these were non-traumatic OHCAs while 7 were traumatic OHCAs, the 2 failures were related to repeated arterial puncture failure. Median time between the EMS dispatch and REBOA catheter placing attempt was 46 min. An increase in etCO2 over 10 mmHg was observed after balloon inflation in 12 out of 18 patients (8/11 non-traumatic and 4/7 traumatic OHCAs), a sustained ROSC was observed in 5 patients (1 traumatic and 4 non-traumatic OHCA) that were subsequently admitted to the ICU. Four out of the 5 patients reached the criteria for brain death in the subsequent 24 h while one patient experienced another episode of refractory cardiac arrest in ICU and subsequently died. CONCLUSION: Our data confirm the feasibility of REBOA technique as an adjunct to ALS in both the ED and prehospital phase and most of the treated patients experienced a transient ROSC after balloon inflation while 5 out of 18 experienced a sustained ROSC. However, while in the trauma setting increasing evidence suggests an improved survival when REBOA is applied to refractory OHCA, in non-traumatic OHCA this has yet to be demonstrated and large studies are needed.

Improving the Appropriateness of Advanced Life Support Teams' Dispatch: A Before-After Study.

BACKGROUND AND IMPORTANCE: The dispatch of Advanced Life Support (ALS) teams in Emergency Medical Services (EMS) is still a hardly studied aspect of prehospital emergency logistics. In 2015, the dispatch algorithm of Emilia Est Emergency Operation Centre (EE-EOC) was implemented and the dispatch of ALS teams was changed from primary to secondary based on triage of dispatched vehicles for high-priority interventions when teams with Immediate Life Support (ILS) skills were dispatched. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate the effects on the appropriateness of ALS teams' intervention and their employment time, and to compare sensitivity and specificity of the algorithm implementation. DESIGN: This was a retrospective before-after observational study. SETTINGS AND PARTICIPANTS: Primary dispatches managed by EE-EOC involving ambulances and/or ALS teams were included. Two groups were created on the basis of the years of intervention (2013-2014 versus 2017-2018). INTERVENTION: A switch from primary to secondary dispatch of ALS teams in case of high-priority dispatches managed by ILS teams was implemented. OUTCOMES: Appropriateness of ALS team intervention, total task time of ALS vehicles, and sensitivity and specificity of the algorithm were reviewed. RESULTS: The study included 242,501 emergency calls that generated 56,567 red code dispatches. The new algorithm significantly increased global sensitivity and specificity of the system in terms of recognition of potential need of ALS intervention and the specificity of primary ALS dispatch. The appropriateness of ALS intervention was significantly increased; total tasking time per day for ALS and the number of critical dispatches without ALS available were reduced. CONCLUSION: The revision of the dispatch criteria and the extension of the two-tiered dispatch for ALS teams significantly increased the appropriateness of ALS intervention and reduced both the global tasking time and the number of high-priority dispatches without ALS teams available.

Remodelling of a regional emergency hub in response to the COVID-19 outbreak in Emilia-Romagna.

Emilia-Romagna was one of the most affected Italian regions during the COVID-19 outbreak in February 2020. We describe here the profound regional, provincial and municipal changes in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, to cope with the numbers of patients presenting with COVID-19 illness, as well as coping with the ongoing need to care for patients presenting with non-COVID-19 emergencies. We focus on the structural and functional changes in one particular hospital within the city of Bologna, the regional capital, which acted as the central emergency hub for time-sensitive pathologies for the province of Bologna. Finally, we present the admissions profile to our emergency department in relation to the massive increase of infected patients observed in our region as well as the organisational response to prepare for the second wave of the pandemic.