Soil Contamination by a Lead Smelter in Brazil in the View of the Local Residents.

A primary lead smelter operated in Santo Amaro City in Brazil from 1960 to 1993, leaving approximately 500,000 tons of industrial dross containing 2⁻3% of lead and other toxic elements that contaminated the industry grounds and the urban environment. This study aimed to present the local residents' perception towards soil contamination by the smelter. In a cross-sectional study, 208 residents from randomly selected households were interviewed about dross hazards and proposals for its management. A city map depicts the distribution and concentration of lead, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, nickel, and antimony, measured in the soil of the 39 households with visible smelter dross. Only one site complies with the soil quality reference values; 27 (69.2%) call for preventive measures, and 11 (28.2%) require intervention. The smelter dross continues widely spread over the city. Thirty (76.9%) out of the 39 residents were able to recognize the smelter dross on household surroundings. However, this ability was not associated with the concentrations of toxic elements in the soil of their residences and surroundings. The smelter and the local Prefecture were most frequently held liable for taking soil cleanup actions. The most frequently (38.0%) cited solution for managing the dross found in the households was "to provide the residents with information about health risks related to the dross".

Indoor air quality of a museum in a subtropical climate: the Oscar Niemeyer museum in Curitiba, Brazil.

The assessment of damage to indoor cultural heritage, in particular by pollutants, is nowadays a major and growing concern for curators and conservators. Nevertheless, although many museums have been widely investigated in Europe, the effects of particulate matter and gaseous pollutants in museums under tropical and subtropical climates and with different economic realities are still unclear. An important portion of the world's cultural heritage is currently in tropical countries where both human and financial resources for preserving museum collections are limited. Hence, our aim is to assess the damage that can be caused to the artwork by pollution in hot and humid environments, where air quality and microclimatic condition differences can cause deterioration. As a case study, particulate matter as well as gases were collected at the Oscar Niemeyer Museum (MON) in Curitiba, Brazil, where large modern and contemporary works of art are displayed. NO2, SO2, O3, Acetic Acid, Formic Acids and BTEX, in the ambient air, were sampled by means of passive diffusive sampling and their concentrations were determined by IC or GC-MS. The particulate matter was collected in bulk form and analyzed with the use of energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence and aethalometer. The chemical compositions of individual particles were quantitatively elucidated, including low-Z components like C, N and O, as well as higher-Z elements, using automated electron probe microanalysis. The gaseous and particulate matter levels were then compared with the concentrations obtained for the same pollutants in other museums, located in places with different climates, and with some reference values provided by international cultural heritage conservation centers. Results are interpreted separately and as a whole with the specific aim of identifying compounds that could contribute to the chemical reactions taking place on the surfaces of artifacts and which could potentially cause irreversible damage to the artworks.

Partial neutralization of rain by seaspray: the case of Recôncavo, Bahia-Brazil.

In the Recôncavo of Bahia (located between 12 degrees 33' and 13 degrees 10'S and 38 degrees 00'and 39 degrees 00'W), there are significant discharges of SO(2) and NO(x) due to local, industrial and urban activities. The incoming air masses from the Atlantic Ocean are enriched with seaspray, which neutralizes part of the rain acidity. The extent of seaspray neutralization of rain acidity was quantified in four sites of the region, each with different loads of seaspray. Rain samples were obtained daily at the same time, integrating the precipitation of the previous 24h, using wet-only collectors and analyzed for pH by potentiometry and for sodium by flame photometry. The amount of rain acidity in Recôncavo neutralized by seaspray ranged from <1% up to 88% and depended on the site. On average, neutralization ranged from 5% to 18%.

Intoxicaçäo pelo chumbo: zinco protoporfirina no sangue de crianças de Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo e de Salvador, BA / Lead poisoning: zinc protoporphyrin in blood of children from Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo and Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

Um estudo epidemiológico de corte transversal avaliou a intoxicaçäo por chumbo em todas as 101 crianças de um a cinco anos de idade, residente num raio de 500 metros de uma fundiçäo de chumbo, a qual funcionava desde 1960 em Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo (BA). A intoxicaçäo por chumbo foi avaliada através de dosagem da concentraçäo de zinco protoporfirina em sangue total (ZPP). Os resultados foram comparados com aqueles obtidos para 98 crianças da mesma faixa etária, de uma creche de Salvador. Em Santo Amaro, a média geométricada ZPP foi de 65,5 µg/dl(DPG=1,7), muito acima portanto do limite de normalidade de 30,0 µg/dl recomendado pelo CDC-EUA. Uma criança, excluída das análises estatísticas, apresentou resultado de ZPP muito elevado: 789 µg/dl. Em Salvador a média geométrica de ZPP foi de 31,0 µg/dl(DPG=1,6). Valores de ZPP "extremamente elevados" (acima de 156,0 µg/dl) foram observados em 8 por cento das crianças de Santo Amaroe em nenhuma (0 por cento) das crianças de Salvador, sendo esta diferenca estatística altamente significante...

Intoxicaçäo pelo chumbo: zinco protofirina no sangue de crianças de Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo e de Salvador, BA / Lead poisoning: zinc protoporphyrin in blood of children from Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo, Bahia, Brazil

Um estudo epidemiológico de corte transversal avaliou a intoxicaçäo por chumbo em todas as 101 crianças de um a cinco anos de idade, residentes num raio de 500 metros de uma fundiçäo de chumbo, a qual funcionava desde 1960 em Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo(BA). A intoxicaçäo por chumbo foi avaliada através da dosagem da concentraçäo de zinco protoporfirina em sangue total(ZPP). Os resultados foram comparados com aqueles obtidos para 98 crianças da mesma faixa etária, de uma creche de Salvador. Em Santo Amaro, a média geométrica da ZPP foi de 65.5µg/dl(DPG=1,7), muito acima portanto do limite de normalidade de 30,0µg/dl recomendado pelo CDC-EUA. Uma criança, excluída das análises estatísticas, apresentou resultado de ZPP muito elevado:789µg/dl. Em Salvador, a média geométrica de ZPP foi de 31,0µg/dl(DPG=1,6). Valores de ZPP "extremamente elevados"(acima de 1546,0 µg/dl) foram observados em 8 por cento das crianças de Santo Amaro e em nenhuma (0 por cento) das crianças de Salvador, sendo esta diferença estatística altamente significante. Anemia estava presente em 35,0 por cento das crianças de Santo Amaro e em 25,5 por cento das crianças de Salvador. Crianças de uma ano de idade apresentaram níveis mais elevados de ZPP e anemia. Näo foi encontrada associaçäo estatística marcante entre os níveis de ZPP e de anemia. A contaminaçäo por chumbo desta populaçäo infantil manteve-se em nível permanentemente elevado durante, pelo menos, o período de 1980 a 1992. Em dezembro de 1993 a fundiçäo encerrou definitivamente suas atividades industriais em Santo Amaro da Purificaçäo.

Lead poisoning among children of Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil in 1980, 1985, and 1992

A cross-sectional epidemiologic survey conducted at the beginning of 1992 evaluated the status of lead intoxication among children from 1 to 5 years of age living within 500 meters of a primary smelter in the Brazilian city of Santo Amaro, Bahia. A total of 103 children in this age group were initially enrolled in the study; however, 2 were later excluded because they could not be located, and 1 was excluded from the statistical analyses for reasons noted bellow. The results were compared with those from similar surveys made in 1980 and 1985 in the same area with children of the same age. A blood sample was obtained from each child, the child's hematocrit and zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) level were determined, and an interview questionnaire was used to collect information of clinical or epidemiologic interes from the child's mother or guardian. The geometric average ZPP was 65.5 ug/100 mL (geometric standard deviation = 1.7), a level far exceeding the upper limit of normality established by the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention of 3o ug/100mL. One child was excluded from the statistical analyses because it exhibited an extremely high ZPP level (789 ug/100 mL). Higher average ZPP levels were found for girls, children with darker-skinned racial backgrounds, children from homes where smelter slag was commonly used around the house, children presenting pica, and children of smelter workers. Of the symptoms of lead poisoning investigated, only nervousness and easy irritability exhibited high frequencies among the children studied. However, the prevalence of above-normal ZPP levels suggestive of lead poisoning was 92.2 percent in 1980, 98.4 percent in 1985, and 97.0 percent in 1992. Hence, the apparent prevalence of lead poisoning continued very high in 1992, indicating that the control measures adopted were ineffective or that other unidentified and uncontrolled risk factors were playing an important role. Overall, however, the proportion of children with very high ZPP levels fell sharply, and that of children with moderately high levels also declined notably, indicating that the severity of the problem had been reduced even though new cases of intoxication continued to occurr. The Santo Amaro smelter closed its doors in December 1993 (AU)

Evoluçao da intoxicaçao por chumbo em crianças de Santo Amaro, Bahia 1980, 1985 e 1992 / Evolution of lead poisoning among children living in Santo Amaro, Bahia- 1980, 1985 and 1992

Um estudo epidemiológico de corte transversal, realizado no início de 1992, avaliou a situaçao da intoxicaçao por chumbo em 101 crianças de 1 a 5 anos de idade residentes num raio de 500 m de uma fundiçao primária de chumbo, localizada na cidade de Santo Amaro, Bahia. Estudaram-se todas as crianças dentro dessa faixa etária. Os resultados foram comparados com os de outros estudos efectuados em 1980 e em 1985, na mesma área, em crianças da mesma idade. Para cada criança, determinou-se hematócrito, concentraçao de zincoprotoporfirina (ZPP), e aplicou-se um questionário para a coleta de informaçoes de interesse clínico-epidemiológico, respondido pela mae ou responsável pela criança. A média geométrica de ZPP foi de 65,5/ug/100 mL (desvio padrao geométrico= 1,7) muito acima, portanto, do limite de normalidade establecido pelo CDC-EUA (30 ug/mL). Encontraram-se médias mais elevadas de ZPP para as crianças de raça escura, do género feminino, residentes em domicílios onde, con frequencia, usou-se escória da fundiçao; que comiam objetos estranhos; e que eram filhos de trabalhadores da fundiçao. Entre os sintomas de intoxicaçao por chumbo pesquisados, apenas o nervosismo e a irritabilidade fácil apresentaram frequencias elevadas na population infantil. A prevalencia de intoxicaçao por chumbo (níveis de ZPP acima do valor normal) foi de 9.2,2 percentagem em 1980, de 98,4 percentagem em 1985 e de 9,70 percentagem em 1992. A intoxicaçao por chumbo continua a apresentar uma prevalencia muito elevada, indicando uma ineficácia das medidas de controle utilizadas e/ou a influencia de fatores de risco nao identificados nem controlados. Contudo, a proporçao de crianças com ZPP extremadamente elevada diminuiu acentuadamente, assim como a proporçao dquelas com niveis moderadamente elevados, embora menos destacadamente, a gravidade do problema foi reduzida, mas novos casos de intoxicaçao continuam ocorrendo (AU)

Evoluçao da intoxicaçao por chumbo em crianças de Santo Amaro, Bahia 1980, 1985 e 1992 / Evolution of lead poisoning among children living in Santo Amaro, Bahia- 1980, 1985 and 1992

Um estudo epidemiológico de corte transversal, realizado no início de 1992, avaliou a situaçao da intoxicaçao por chumbo em 101 crianças de 1 a 5 anos de idade residentes num raio de 500 m de uma fundiçao primária de chumbo, localizada na cidade de Santo Amaro, Bahia. Estudaram-se todas as crianças dentro dessa faixa etária. Os resultados foram comparados com os de outros estudos efectuados em 1980 e em 1985, na mesma área, em crianças da mesma idade. Para cada criança, determinou-se hematócrito, concentraçao de zincoprotoporfirina (ZPP), e aplicou-se um questionário para a coleta de informaçoes de interesse clínico-epidemiológico, respondido pela mae ou responsável pela criança. A média geométrica de ZPP foi de 65,5/ug/100 mL (desvio padrao geométrico= 1,7) muito acima, portanto, do limite de normalidade establecido pelo CDC-EUA (30 ug/mL). Encontraram-se médias mais elevadas de ZPP para as crianças de raça escura, do género feminino, residentes em domicílios onde, con frequencia, usou-se escória da fundiçao; que comiam objetos estranhos; e que eram filhos de trabalhadores da fundiçao. Entre os sintomas de intoxicaçao por chumbo pesquisados, apenas o nervosismo e a irritabilidade fácil apresentaram frequencias elevadas na population infantil. A prevalencia de intoxicaçao por chumbo (níveis de ZPP acima do valor normal) foi de 9.2,2 percentagem em 1980, de 98,4 percentagem em 1985 e de 9,70 percentagem em 1992. A intoxicaçao por chumbo continua a apresentar uma prevalencia muito elevada, indicando uma ineficácia das medidas de controle utilizadas e/ou a influencia de fatores de risco nao identificados nem controlados. Contudo, a proporçao de crianças com ZPP extremadamente elevada diminuiu acentuadamente, assim como a proporçao dquelas com niveis moderadamente elevados, embora menos destacadamente, a gravidade do problema foi reduzida, mas novos casos de intoxicaçao continuam ocorrendo (AU)

Também será publicado em inglés no Bull. PAHO vol. 29(4), 1995

Lead poisoning among children of Santo Amaro, Bahia, Brazil in 1980, 1985, and 1992

A cross-sectional epidemiologic survey conducted at the beginning of 1992 evaluated the status of lead intoxication among children from 1 to 5 years of age living within 500 meters of a primary smelter in the Brazilian city of Santo Amaro, Bahia. A total of 103 children in this age group were initially enrolled in the study; however, 2 were later excluded because they could not be located, and 1 was excluded from the statistical analyses for reasons noted bellow. The results were compared with those from similar surveys made in 1980 and 1985 in the same area with children of the same age. A blood sample was obtained from each child, the child's hematocrit and zinc protoporphyrin (ZPP) level were determined, and an interview questionnaire was used to collect information of clinical or epidemiologic interes from the child's mother or guardian. The geometric average ZPP was 65.5 ug/100 mL (geometric standard deviation = 1.7), a level far exceeding the upper limit of normality established by the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention of 3o ug/100mL. One child was excluded from the statistical analyses because it exhibited an extremely high ZPP level (789 ug/100 mL). Higher average ZPP levels were found for girls, children with darker-skinned racial backgrounds, children from homes where smelter slag was commonly used around the house, children presenting pica, and children of smelter workers. Of the symptoms of lead poisoning investigated, only nervousness and easy irritability exhibited high frequencies among the children studied. However, the prevalence of above-normal ZPP levels suggestive of lead poisoning was 92.2 percent in 1980, 98.4 percent in 1985, and 97.0 percent in 1992. Hence, the apparent prevalence of lead poisoning continued very high in 1992, indicating that the control measures adopted were ineffective or that other unidentified and uncontrolled risk factors were playing an important role. Overall, however, the proportion of children with very high ZPP levels fell sharply, and that of children with moderately high levels also declined notably, indicating that the severity of the problem had been reduced even though new cases of intoxication continued to occurr. The Santo Amaro smelter closed its doors in December 1993 (AU)

Edited version of an article previously published in Portuguese in the Bol. Oficina Sanit. Panam. Vol. 120(1), 1996