Trypanosoma vivax infection in sheep: Different patterns of virulence and pathogenicity associated with differentially expressed proteomes.

Cattle trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma vivax is a widely distributed disease in Africa and Latin America. It causes significant losses in the livestock industry and is characterized by fluctuating parasitemia, anemia, fever, lethargy, and weight loss. In this study we evaluated the virulence (capacity to multiply inside the host and to modulate the host response) and pathogenicity (ability to produce disease and/or mortality) patterns of two T. vivax strains (TvMT1 and TvLIEM176) in experimentally-infected sheep and determined the proteins differentially expressed in the proteomes of these two strains. Hematological and clinical parameters were monitored in experimentally-infected versus non-infected sheep for 60 days. All the infected animals developed discernable parasitemia at 3 days post-infection (dpi), and the first parasitemia peak was observed at 6 dpi. The maximum average value of parasitemia was 1.3×107 (95% CI, 7.9×105-2×108) parasites/ml in TvLIEM176-infected animals, and 2.5×106 (95% CI, 1.6×105-4×107) parasites/ml in TvMT1-infected ones. Anemia and clinical manifestations were more severe in the animals infected by TvMT1 strain than in those infected by TvLIEM176. In the proteomic analysis, a total of 29 proteins were identified, of which 14 exhibited significant differences in their expression levels between strains. Proteins with higher expression in TvLIEM176 were: alpha tubulin, beta tubulin, arginine kinase, glucose-regulated protein 78, paraflagellar protein 3, and T-complex protein 1 subunit theta. Proteins with higher expression in TvMT1 were: chaperonin HSP60, T-complex protein 1 subunit alpha, heat shock protein 70, pyruvate kinase, glycerol kinase, inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase, 73kDa paraflagellar rod protein, and vacuolar ATP synthase. There was a difference in the virulence and pathogenicity between the T. vivax strains: TvLIEM176 showed high virulence and moderate pathogenicity, whereas TvMT1 showed low virulence and high pathogenicity. The proteins identified in this study are discussed for their potential involvement in strains' virulence and pathogenicity, to be further defined as biomarkers of severity in T. vivax infections.

Trypanosoma vivax infection in sheep: Different patterns of virulence and pathogenicity associated with differentially expressed proteomes.

Cattle trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma vivax is a widely distributed disease in Africa and Latin America. It causes significant losses in the livestock industry and is characterized by fluctuating parasitemia, anemia, fever, lethargy, and weight loss. In this study we evaluated the virulence (capacity to multiply inside the host and to modulate the host response) and pathogenicity (ability to produce disease and/or mortality) patterns of two T. vivax strains (TvMT1 and TvLIEM176) in experimentally-infected sheep and determined the proteins differentially expressed in the proteomes of these two strains. Hematological and clinical parameters were monitored in experimentally-infected versus non-infected sheep for 60 days. All the infected animals developed discernable parasitemia at 3 days post-infection (dpi), and the first parasitemia peak was observed at 6 dpi. The maximum average value of parasitemia was 1.3 × 107 (95% CI, 7.9 × 105-2 × 108) parasites/ml in TvLIEM176-infected animals, and 2.5 × 106 (95% CI, 1.6 × 105-4 × 107) parasites/ml in TvMT1-infected ones. Anemia and clinical manifestations were more severe in the animals infected by TvMT1 strain than in those infected by TvLIEM176. In the proteomic analysis, a total of 29 proteins were identified, of which 14 exhibited significant differences in their expression levels between strains. Proteins with higher expression in TvLIEM176 were: alpha tubulin, beta tubulin, arginine kinase, glucose-regulated protein 78, paraflagellar protein 3, and T-complex protein 1 subunit theta. Proteins with higher expression in TvMT1 were: chaperonin HSP60, T-complex protein 1 subunit alpha, heat shock protein 70, pyruvate kinase, glycerol kinase, inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase, 73 kDa paraflagellar rod protein, and vacuolar ATP synthase. There was a difference in the virulence and pathogenicity between the T. vivax strains: TvLIEM176 showed high virulence and moderate pathogenicity, whereas TvMT1 showed low virulence and high pathogenicity. The proteins identified in this study are discussed for their potential involvement in strains' virulence and pathogenicity, to be further defined as biomarkers of severity in T. vivax infections.

Trypanosoma vivax Adhesion to Red Blood Cells in Experimentally Infected Sheep.

Trypanosomosis, a globally occurring parasitic disease, poses as a major obstacle to livestock production in tropical and subtropical regions resulting in tangible economic losses. In Latin America including Venezuela, trypanosomosis of ruminants is mainly caused by Trypanosoma vivax. Biologically active substances produced from trypanosomes, as well as host-trypanosome cellular interactions, contribute to the pathogenesis of anemia in an infection. The aim of this study was to examine with a scanning electron microscope the cellular interactions and alterations in ovine red blood cells (RBC) experimentally infected with T. vivax. Ovine infection resulted in changes of RBC shape as well as the formation of surface holes or vesicles. A frequent observation was the adhesion to the ovine RBC by the trypanosome's free flagellum, cell body, or attached flagellum in a process mediated by the filopodia emission from the trypanosome surface. The observed RBC alterations are caused by mechanical and biochemical damage from host-parasite interactions occurring in the bloodstream. The altered erythrocytes are prone to mononuclear phagocytic removal contributing to the hematocrit decrease during infection.

Transcriptome analysis of the bloodstream stage from the parasite Trypanosoma vivax.

BACKGROUND: Trypanosoma vivax is the earliest branching African trypanosome. This crucial phylogenetic position makes T. vivax a fascinating model to tackle fundamental questions concerning the origin and evolution of several features that characterize African trypanosomes, such as the Variant Surface Glycoproteins (VSGs) upon which antibody clearing and antigenic variation are based. Other features like gene content and trans-splicing patterns are worth analyzing in this species for comparative purposes. RESULTS: We present a RNA-seq analysis of the bloodstream stage of T. vivax from data obtained using two complementary sequencing technologies (454 Titanium and Illumina). Assembly of 454 reads yielded 13385 contigs corresponding to proteins coding genes (7800 of which were identified). These sequences, their annotation and other features are available through an online database presented herein. Among these sequences, about 1000 were found to be species specific and 50 exclusive of the T. vivax strain analyzed here. Expression patterns and levels were determined for VSGs and the remaining genes. Interestingly, VSG expression level, although being high, is considerably lower than in Trypanosoma brucei. Indeed, the comparison of surface protein composition between both African trypanosomes (as inferred from RNA-seq data), shows that they are substantially different, being VSG absolutely predominant in T. brucei, while in T. vivax it represents only about 55%. This raises the question concerning the protective role of VSGs in T. vivax, hence their ancestral role in immune evasion.It was also found that around 600 genes have their unique (or main) trans-splice site very close (sometimes immediately before) the start codon. Gene Ontology analysis shows that this group is enriched in proteins related to the translation machinery (e.g. ribosomal proteins, elongation factors). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first RNA-seq data study in trypanosomes outside the model species T. brucei, hence it provides the possibility to conduct comparisons that allow drawing evolutionary and functional inferences. This analysis also provides several insights on the expression patterns and levels of protein coding sequences (such as VSG gene expression), trans-splicing, codon patterns and regulatory mechanisms. An online T. vivax RNA-seq database described herein could be a useful tool for parasitologists working with trypanosomes.

Serological evidence of Anaplasma spp. in small ruminants from Venezuela using recombinant MSP5 in immunoenzymatic assay / Evidencia serológica de Anaplasma spp. en pequeños rumiantes de Venezuela utilizando MSP5 recombinante en ensayos inmunoenzimáticos

Anaplasma marginale causes a disease in cattle characterized by fever, anemia and decrease in milk and meat production. Small ruminants do not show signs of disease when infected, but it has been suggested they could act as reservoirs. Goat and sheep breeding is socially and economically important in arid and semi-arid areas in Venezuela, and these species often share space and food with cattle. The aim of this work was to detect antibodies against Anaplasma spp. in Venezuelan goat and sheep flocks. To accomplish this goal, an indirect ELISA using recombinant MSP5 as antigen of A. marginale was performed. Sera obtained from experimental infection in goat and a hyperimmune sheep serum were used as positive controls. Blood sera were obtained from 45 sheep and 48 goats located in Guárico State, an endemic area to bovine anaplasmosis. After standardization of assay for each species, 80.46% of the sheep and 59.25% of the goat sera showed to have antibodies against MSP5. No signs of clinical disease were detected in sampled animals. These results suggest that small ruminants could harbour A. marginale and consequently may be reservoirs for neighbouring cattle if appropriate vectors are present. The development of clinical diseases caused by A. marginale under stress situations and the existence of other Anaplasma species (e.g. A. ovis) in small ruminants should also be investigated.

Anaplasma marginale ocasiona una enfermedad en los bovinos caracterizada por fiebre, anemia y disminución de la producción de leche y carne. Los pequeños rumiantes generalmente no muestran signos clínicos, por lo que pudieran actuar como reservorio. En Venezuela, los ovinos y caprinos tienen gran importancia económica y socialmente en zonas áridas y semi- áridas e incluso, en muchas ocasiones comparten su espacio y alimento con los bovinos. El objetivo de este trabajo fue detectar anticuerpos contra Anaplasma spp. en rebaños de ovinos y caprinos. Para ello, se estandarizó un ELISA indirecto con la MSP5 recombinante de A. marginale, empleando sueros provenientes de infecciones experimentales en caprinos y un suero hiperinmune ovino como controles positivos. Posteriormente, fueron obtenidos sueros sanguíneos de 45 ovinos y 48 caprinos localizados en una zona endémica a anaplasmosis bovina del estado Guárico. De estos, 80,46% de los ovinos y 59,25% de los caprinos presentaron anticuerpos que reconocieron la MSP5, sin embargo, ninguno de estos animales positivos presentaron signos clínicos de la enfermedad. Estos resultados sugieren que los pequeños rumiantes son portadores de A. marginale y por ende, pueden estar actuando como reservorio de la enfermedad para los bovinos en el caso que se encuentren los vectores apropiados. Por lo tanto, se debe profundizar en los estudios sobre el desarrollo de sintomatología clínica en condiciones de estrés y la existencia de otras especies de Anaplasma (como A. ovis) en los ovinos y caprinos de Venezuela.

Tiempo de supervivencia in vivo y criopreservación de Trypanosoma vivax / In vivo survival time and cryopreservation of Trypanosoma vivax

Uno de los problemas más comunes del trabajo con Trypanosoma vivax, es la supervivencia y criopreservación de este protozoario, lo cual origina pérdida de aislados de campo y errores en exámenes parasitológicos. Se propone evaluar la supervivencia in vivo en condiciones de campo y criopreservación de T. vivax. Para determinar la supervivencia, la sangre se sometió a temperatura ambiente y refrigeración a 4°C, luego se determinó la sobrevivencia en el tiempo. Para el estudio de criopreservación, se emplearon dos crioprotectores de diferente naturaleza química: glicerol 10 por ciento y DMSO 5 por ciento de concentración final. Además, la criopreservación se realizó bajo tres condiciones de almacenamiento en nitrógeno líquido: 1) fase gaseosa 2) líquida y 3) combinación de ambas. Durante la evaluación de la supervivencia, se observó que la sobrevivencia de T. vivax en sangre refrigerada disminuyó significativamente (P<0,01), en comparación con aquellas sometidas a temperatura ambiente. Sin embargo, la sobrevivencia de éstos últimos comienza a disminuir luego de 6 horas, aunque algunos hemoparásitos permanecieron viables hasta 24 horas post-recolección. Para evaluar la criopreservación, al cabo de dos semanas, se descongelaron los crioviales, se determinó la sobrevivencia, resultando negativas las muestras sometidas a congelamiento directo en fase líquida. Los otros dos métodos empleados, resultaron similares (estadísticamente no significativos), el glicerol 10 por ciento resultó con mayor número de parásitos viables. En conclusión, se determinó que, las muestras infectadas con T. vivax deben evaluarse antes de 8 horas post-recolección y mantenerlas a temperatura ambiente. Por otra parte, el congelamiento debe realizarse en primera instancia en fase gaseosa o combinación gaseosa/líquida, empleando glicerol 10 por ciento. Estos resultados, permiten sugerir la mejor metodología a ser empleada para la supervivencia de los parásitos antes de exámenes parasitológicos...

One of the common problems working with Trypanosoma vivax is its survival and cryopreservation, which originates loss of field isolates and parasitological examinations mistakes. The aim of this paper was to study the best methodologies for in vivo survival under field conditions and cryopreservation of the T. vivax. In order to study complete blood survival of T. vivax, two surviving conditions were tested at: room temperature and refrigeration at 4°C. The result shows that surviving in cooled sampled diminished significantly (P<0.01) compare with room temperature. Nevertheless, surviving of room temperature parasite begins to diminish after 6 hours, although some parasites remained viable up to 24 hours post-harvesting. Cryopreservation studies were made under three liquid nitrogen storage conditions: 1) gaseous phase 2) liquid and 3) gaseous/ liquid phase combination (glycerol 10 percent and DMSO 5 percent, were used as cryoprotectants). After two weeks and defrost the survive of T. vivax from cryovials determined. The result show that: a) direct freezing in liquid phase samples were negative and b) the other two methodology were positive and statistically similar, glycerol 10 percent resulted with the greatest number of viable parasites. In conclusion, these results suggest that the best methodologies for conservation under field conditions, were that the samples infected with T. vivax must be evaluated before 8 hours post-harvesting at room temperature and cryopreservation condition of the T. vivax, must be made in gaseous phase or gaseous/liquid phase combination.