Design of oscillatory dynamics in numerical simulations of compartment-based enzyme systems.

Enzymatic reactions that yield non-neutral products are known to involve feedback due to the bell-shaped pH-rate curve of the enzyme. Compartmentalizing the reaction has been shown to lead to transport-driven oscillations in theory; however, there have been few reproducible experimental examples. Our objective was to determine how the conditions could be optimized to achieve pH oscillations. We employed numerical simulations to investigate the hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in a confined esterase enzyme system, examining the influence of key factors on its behavior. Specific parameter ranges that lead to bistability and self-sustained pH oscillations and the importance of fast base transport for oscillations in this acid-producing system are highlighted. Suggestions are made to expand the parameter space for the occurrence of oscillations, including modifying the maximum of the enzyme pH-rate curve and increasing the negative feedback rate. This research not only sheds light on the programmable nature of enzyme-driven pH regulation but also furthers knowledge on the optimal design of such feedback systems for experimentalists.

A microfluidic double emulsion platform for spatiotemporal control of pH and particle synthesis.

The temporal control of pH in microreactors such as emulsion droplets plays a vital role in applications including biomineralisation and microparticle synthesis. Typically, pH changes are achieved either by passive diffusion of species into a droplet or by acid/base producing reactions. Here, we exploit an enzyme reaction combined with the properties of a water-oil-water (W/O/W) double emulsion to control the pH-time profile in the droplets. A microfluidic platform was used for production of ∼100-200 µm urease-encapsulated double emulsions with a tuneable mineral oil shell thickness of 10-40 µm. The reaction was initiated on-demand by addition of urea and a pulse in base (ammonia) up to pH 8 was observed in the droplets after a time lag of the order of minutes. The pH-time profile can be manipulated by the diffusion timescale of urea and ammonia through the oil layer, resulting in a steady state pH not observed in bulk reactive solutions. This approach may be used to regulate the formation of pH sensitive materials under mild conditions and, as a proof of concept, the reaction was coupled to calcium phosphate precipitation in the droplets. The oil shell thickness was varied to select for either brushite microplatelets or hydroxyapatite particles, compared to the mixture of different precipitates obtained in bulk.

Influence of Oxygen on Chemoconvective Patterns in the Iodine Clock Reaction.

There is increasing interest in using chemical clock reactions to drive material formation; however, these reactions are often subject to chemoconvective effects, and control of such systems remains challenging. Here, we show how the transfer of oxygen at the air-water interface plays a crucial role in the spatiotemporal behavior of the iodine clock reaction with sulfite. A kinetic model was developed to demonstrate how the reaction of oxygen with sulfite can control a switch from a low-iodine to high-iodine state under well-stirred conditions and drive the formation of transient iodine gradients in unstirred solutions. In experiments in thin layers with optimal depths, the reaction couples with convective instability at the air-water interface forming an extended network-like structure of iodine at the surface that develops into a spotted pattern at the base of the layer. Thus, oxygen drives the spatial separation of iodine states essential for patterns in this system and may influence pattern selection in other clock reaction systems with sulfite.

A Novel High-Throughput Ex Vivo Ovine Skin Wound Model for Testing Emerging Antibiotics.

The development of antimicrobials is an expensive process with increasingly low success rates, which makes further investment in antimicrobial discovery research less attractive. Antimicrobial drug discovery and subsequent commercialization can be made more lucrative if a fail-fast-and-fail-cheap approach can be implemented within the lead optimization stages where researchers have greater control over drug design and formulation. In this article, the setup of an ex vivo ovine wounded skin model infected with Staphylococcus aureus is described, which is simple, cost-effective, high throughput, and reproducible. The bacterial physiology in the model mimics that during infection as bacterial proliferation is dependent on the pathogen's ability to damage the tissue. The establishment of wound infection is verified by an increase in viable bacterial counts compared to the inoculum. This model can be used as a platform to test the efficacy of emerging antimicrobials in the lead optimization stage. It can be contended that the availability of this model will provide researchers developing antimicrobials with a fail-fast-and-fail-cheap model, which will help increase success rates in subsequent animal trials. The model will also facilitate the reduction and refinement of animal use for research and ultimately enable faster and more cost-effective translation of novel antimicrobials for skin and soft tissue infections to the clinic.

Collective Behavior of Urease pH Clocks in Nano- and Microvesicles Controlled by Fast Ammonia Transport.

The transmission of chemical signals via an extracellular solution plays a vital role in collective behavior in cellular biological systems and may be exploited in applications of lipid vesicles such as drug delivery. Here, we investigated chemical communication in synthetic micro- and nanovesicles containing urease in a solution of urea and acid. We combined experiments with simulations to demonstrate that the fast transport of ammonia to the external solution governs the pH-time profile and synchronizes the timing of the pH clock reaction in a heterogeneous population of vesicles. This study shows how the rate of production and emission of a small basic product controls pH changes in active vesicles with a distribution of sizes and enzyme amounts, which may be useful in bioreactor or healthcare applications.

Reaction-diffusion hydrogels from urease enzyme particles for patterned coatings.

The reaction and diffusion of small molecules is used to initiate the formation of protective polymeric layers, or biofilms, that attach cells to surfaces. Here, inspired by biofilm formation, we present a general method for the growth of hydrogels from urease enzyme-particles by combining production of ammonia with a pH-regulated polymerization reaction in solution. We show through experiments and simulations how the propagating basic front and thiol-acrylate polymerization were continuously maintained by the localized urease reaction in the presence of urea, resulting in hydrogel layers around the enzyme particles at surfaces, interfaces or in motion. The hydrogels adhere the enzyme-particles to surfaces and have a tunable growth rate of the order of 10 µm min-1 that depends on the size and spatial distribution of particles. This approach can be exploited to create enzyme-hydrogels or chemically patterned coatings for applications in biocatalytic flow reactors.

Periodic Nucleation of Calcium Phosphate in a Stirred Biocatalytic Reaction.

Highly ordered superstructures composed of inorganic nanoparticles appear in natural and synthetic systems, however the mechanisms of non-equilibrium self-organization that may be involved are still poorly understood. Herein, we performed a kinetic investigation of the precipitation of calcium phosphate using a process widely found in microorganisms: the hydrolysis of urea by enzyme urease. With high initial ratio of calcium ion to phosphate, periodic precipitation was obtained accompanied by pH oscillations in a well-stirred, closed reactor. We propose that an internal pH-regulated change in the concentration of phosphate ion is the driving force for periodicity. A simple model involving the biocatalytic reaction network coupled with burst nucleation of nanoparticles above a critical supersaturation reproduced key features of the experiments. These findings may provide insight to the self-organization of nanoparticles in biomineralization and improve design strategies of biomaterials for medical applications.

Modelling Bacteria-Inspired Dynamics with Networks of Interacting Chemicals.

One approach to understanding how life-like properties emerge involves building synthetic cellular systems that mimic certain dynamical features of living cells such as bacteria. Here, we developed a model of a reaction network in a cellular system inspired by the ability of bacteria to form a biofilm in response to increasing cell density. Our aim was to determine the role of chemical feedback in the dynamics. The feedback was applied through the enzymatic rate dependence on pH, as pH is an important parameter that controls the rates of processes in cells. We found that a switch in pH can be used to drive base-catalyzed gelation or precipitation of a substance in the external solution. A critical density of cells was required for gelation that was essentially independent of the pH-driven feedback. However, the cell pH reached a higher maximum as a result of the appearance of pH oscillations with feedback. Thus, we conclude that while feedback may not play a vital role in some density-dependent behavior in cellular systems, it nevertheless can be exploited to activate internally regulated cell processes at low cell densities.

Influence of reaction-induced convection on quorum sensing in enzyme-loaded agarose beads.

In theory, groups of enzyme-loaded particles producing an acid or base may show complex behavior including dynamical quorum sensing, the appearance of synchronized oscillations above a critical number or density of particles. Here, experiments were performed with the enzyme urease loaded into mm-sized agarose beads and placed in a solution of urea, resulting in an increase in pH. This behavior was found to be dependent upon the number of beads present in the array; however, reaction-induced convection occurred and plumes of high pH developed that extended to the walls of the reactor. The convection resulted in the motion of the mm-sized particles and conversion of the solution to high pH. Simulations in a simple model of the beads demonstrated the suppression of dynamical quorum sensing in the presence of flow.

Towards feedback-controlled nanomedicines for smart, adaptive delivery.

IMPACT STATEMENT: The timing and rate of release of pharmaceuticals from advanced drug delivery systems is an important property that has received considerable attention in the scientific literature. Broadly, these mostly fall into two classes: controlled release with a prolonged release rate or triggered release where the drug is rapidly released in response to an environmental stimulus. This review aims to highlight the potential for developing adaptive release systems that more subtlety modulate the drug release profile through continuous communication with its environment facilitated through feedback control. By reviewing the key elements of this approach in one place (fundamental principles of nanomedicine, enzymatic nanoreactors for medical therapies and feedback-controlled chemical systems) and providing additional motivating case studies in the context of chronobiology, we hope to inspire innovative development of novel "chrononanomedicines."

Systems chemistry.

Building on our ability to design and synthesise molecules and our understanding of the noncovalent interactions between these molecules, the chemical sciences are currently entering the new territory of Systems Chemistry. This young field aims to develop complex molecular systems showing emergent properties; i.e. properties that go beyond the sum of the characteristics of the individual consituents of the system. This review gives an impression of the state of the art of the field by showing a diverse number of recent highlights, including out-of-equilibrium self-assembly, chemically fuelled molecular motion, compartmentalised chemical networks and designed oscillators. Subsequently a number of current challenges related to the design of complex chemical systems are discussed, including those of creating concurrent formation-destruction systems, continuously maintaining chemical systems away from equilibrium, incorporating feedback loops and pushing replication chemistry away from equilibrium. Finally, the prospects for Systems Chemistry are discussed including the tantalizing vision of the de novo synthesis of life and the idea of self-synthesising and self-repairing chemical factories.

Switches induced by quorum sensing in a model of enzyme-loaded microparticles.

Quorum sensing refers to the ability of bacteria and other single-celled organisms to respond to changes in cell density or number with population-wide changes in behaviour. Here, simulations were performed to investigate quorum sensing in groups of diffusively coupled enzyme microparticles using a well-characterized autocatalytic reaction which raises the pH of the medium: hydrolysis of urea by urease. The enzyme urease is found in both plants and microorganisms, and has been widely exploited in engineering processes. We demonstrate how increases in group size can be used to achieve a sigmoidal switch in pH at high enzyme loading, oscillations in pH at intermediate enzyme loading and a bistable, hysteretic switch at low enzyme loading. Thus, quorum sensing can be exploited to obtain different types of response in the same system, depending on the enzyme concentration. The implications for microorganisms in colonies are discussed, and the results could help in the design of synthetic quorum sensing for biotechnology applications such as drug delivery.

Temporal Control of Gelation and Polymerization Fronts Driven by an Autocatalytic Enzyme Reaction.

Chemical systems that remain kinetically dormant until activated have numerous applications in materials science. Herein we present a method for the control of gelation that exploits an inbuilt switch: the increase in pH after an induction period in the urease-catalyzed hydrolysis of urea was used to trigger the base-catalyzed Michael addition of a water-soluble trithiol to a polyethylene glycol diacrylate. The time to gelation (minutes to hours) was either preset through the initial concentrations or the reaction was initiated locally by a base, thus resulting in polymerization fronts that converted the mixture from a liquid into a gel (ca. 0.1 mm min-1). The rate of hydrolytic degradation of the hydrogel depended on the initial concentrations, thus resulting in a gel lifetime of hours to months. In this way, temporal programming of gelation was possible under mild conditions by using the output of an autocatalytic enzyme reaction to drive both the polymerization and subsequent degradation of a hydrogel.

Temporal Control of Gelation and Polymerization Fronts Driven by an Autocatalytic Enzyme Reaction.

Chemical systems that remain kinetically dormant until activated have numerous applications in materials science. Herein we present a method for the control of gelation that exploits an inbuilt switch: the increase in pH after an induction period in the urease-catalyzed hydrolysis of urea was used to trigger the base-catalyzed Michael addition of a water-soluble trithiol to a polyethylene glycol diacrylate. The time to gelation (minutes to hours) was either preset through the initial concentrations or the reaction was initiated locally by a base, thus resulting in polymerization fronts that converted the mixture from a liquid into a gel (ca. 0.1 mm min(-1)). The rate of hydrolytic degradation of the hydrogel depended on the initial concentrations, thus resulting in a gel lifetime of hours to months. In this way, temporal programming of gelation was possible under mild conditions by using the output of an autocatalytic enzyme reaction to drive both the polymerization and subsequent degradation of a hydrogel.

Insights into collective cell behaviour from populations of coupled chemical oscillators.

Biological systems such as yeast show coordinated activity driven by chemical communication between cells. Here, we show how experiments with coupled chemical oscillators can provide insights into collective behaviour in cellular systems. Two methods of coupling the oscillators are described: exchange of chemical species with the surrounding solution and computer-controlled illumination of a light-sensitive catalyst. The collective behaviour observed includes synchronisation, dynamical quorum sensing (a density dependent transition to population-wide oscillations), and chimera states, where oscillators spontaneously split into coherent and incoherent groups. At the core of the different types of behaviour lies an intracellular autocatalytic signal and an intercellular communication mechanism that influences the autocatalytic growth.

Role of differential transport in an oscillatory enzyme reaction.

As a result of the bell-shaped pH-rate characteristic of enzymatic processes, feedback may arise in enzyme reactions having non-neutral products. This special type of product activation has been shown to lead to self-sustained pH oscillations in an enzyme-loaded membrane. We investigate the possibility of oscillations in a model of the urea-urease reaction, prompted by the recent experimental discovery of feedback in this reaction. An open system is considered in which acid and urea are transported to a cell containing the enzyme. Using linear stability analysis we determine the range of transport coefficients limit cycles may exist for and show that differential transport is required for oscillations in a class of compartmentalized enzyme processes similar to the urea-urease system. We demonstrate that although the transport rate of acid (k(H)) must be greater than that of urea (k(S)) for oscillations in a urease-loaded membrane, bistability is possible for k(S) ≥ k(H).

Motion and interaction of aspirin crystals at aqueous-air interfaces.

Small-molecule amphiphiles such as aspirin have unique properties arising from a combination of an aromatic hydrophobic part and a hydrophilic part. We show that crystals of aspirin are capable of generating convective flows at the air-aqueous interface from both Marangoni effects (through weak surface activity) and capillarity (surface deformations). The flow-driven motion of millimeter-sized crystals was found to depend on the presence of other ions in solution as well as the distance and orientation of the crystals. The interactions lead to the formation of groups of two or more crystals that also underwent motion. The convective flows created by small amphiphile crystals might be exploited in the dynamic self-organization of particles at interfaces.

Chemical patterns in translating vortices: inter- and intra-cellular mixing effects.

Stationary chemical patterns-flow distributed oscillations (FDOs)-are obtained when the Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction is coupled with translating vortex flow in a Vortex Flow Reactor. For certain conditions, the FDOs are unstable with the observation of disappearing bands or complex patterns. The transitions between modes of pattern formation are reproduced in a modified Oregonator model consisting of two-zone cells connected in series. We show that increasing inter-cellular mixing of the outer zones results in a transition from FDO to absolute instabilities (AI) and increasing intra-cellular mixing between the core and outer zones can drive the reverse transition between modes (AI to FDO).