Design and characterization of a dynamic vibrational culture system.

To engineer a functional vocal fold tissue, the mechanical environment of the native tissue needs to be emulated in vitro. We have created a dynamic culture system capable of generating vibratory stimulations at human phonation frequencies. The novel device is composed of a function generator, a power amplifier, an enclosed loudspeaker and a circumferentially-anchored silicone membrane. The vibration signals are translated to the membrane aerodynamically by the oscillating air pressure underneath. The vibration profiles detected on the membrane were symmetrical relative to the centre of the membrane as well as the resting position over the range of frequencies (60-300 Hz) and amplitudes tested (1-30 µm). The oscillatory motion of the membrane gave rise to two orthogonal, in-plane strain components that are similar in magnitude (0.47%) and are strong functions of membrane thickness. Neonatal foreskin fibroblasts (NFFs) attached to the membrane were subjected to a 1 h vibration at 60, 110 and 300 Hz, with the displacement at the centre of the membrane varying in the range 1-30 µm, followed by a 6 h rest. These regimens did not cause morphological changes to the cells. An increase in cell proliferation was detected when NFFs were driven into oscillation at 110 Hz with a normal displacement of 30 µm. qPCR results showed that the expression of genes encoding some extracellular matrix proteins was altered in response to changes in vibratory frequency and amplitude. The dynamic culture device provides a potentially useful in vitro platform for evaluating cellular responses to vibration.

High-frequency viscoelastic shear properties of vocal fold tissues: implications for vocal fold tissue engineering.

The biomechanical function of the vocal folds (VFs) depends on their viscoelastic properties. Many conditions can lead to VF scarring that compromises voice function and quality. To identify candidate replacement materials, the structure, composition, and mechanical properties of native tissues need to be understood at phonation frequencies. Previously, the authors developed the torsional wave experiment (TWE), a stress-wave-based experiment to determine the linear viscoelastic shear properties of small, soft samples. Here, the viscoelastic properties of porcine and human VFs were measured over a frequency range of 10-200 Hz. The TWE utilizes resonance phenomena to determine viscoelastic properties; therefore, the specimen test frequency is determined by the sample size and material properties. Viscoelastic moduli are reported at resonance frequencies. Structure and composition of the tissues were determined by histology and immunochemistry. Porcine data from the TWE are separated into two groups: a young group, consisting of fetal and newborn pigs, and an adult group, consisting of 6-9-month olds and 2+-year olds. Adult tissues had an average storage modulus of 2309±1394 Pa and a loss tangent of 0.38±0.10 at frequencies of 36-200 Hz. The VFs of young pigs were significantly more compliant, with a storage modulus of 394±142 Pa and a loss tangent of 0.40±0.14 between 14 and 30 Hz. No gender dependence was observed. Histological staining showed that adult porcine tissues had a more organized, layered structure than the fetal tissues, with a thicker epithelium and a more structured lamina propria. Elastin fibers in fetal VF tissues were immature compared to those in adult tissues. Together, these structural changes in the tissues most likely contributed to the change in viscoelastic properties. Adult human VF tissues, recovered postmortem from adult patients with a history of smoking or disease, had an average storage modulus of 756±439 Pa and a loss tangent of 0.42±0.10. Contrary to the results of some other investigators, no significant frequency dependence was observed. This lack of observable frequency dependence may be due to the modest frequency range of the experiments and the wide range of stiffnesses observed within nominally similar sample types.

Tunable mechanical stability and deformation response of a resilin-based elastomer.

Resilin, the highly elastomeric protein found in specialized compartments of most arthropods, possesses superior resilience and excellent high-frequency responsiveness. Enabled by biosynthetic strategies, we have designed and produced a modular, recombinant resilin-like polypeptide bearing both mechanically active and biologically active domains to create novel biomaterial microenvironments for engineering mechanically active tissues such as blood vessels, cardiovascular tissues, and vocal folds. Preliminary studies revealed that these recombinant materials exhibit promising mechanical properties and support the adhesion of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. In this Article, we detail the characterization of the dynamic mechanical properties of these materials, as assessed via dynamic oscillatory shear rheology at various protein concentrations and cross-linking ratios. Simply by varying the polypeptide concentration and cross-linker ratios, the storage modulus G' can be easily tuned within the range of 500 Pa to 10 kPa. Strain-stress cycles and resilience measurements were probed via standard tensile testing methods and indicated the excellent resilience (>90%) of these materials, even when the mechanically active domains are intercepted by nonmechanically active biological cassettes. Further evaluation, at high frequencies, of the mechanical properties of these materials were assessed by a custom-designed torsional wave apparatus (TWA) at frequencies close to human phonation, indicating elastic modulus values from 200 to 2500 Pa, which is within the range of experimental data collected on excised porcine and human vocal fold tissues. The results validate the outstanding mechanical properties of the engineered materials, which are highly comparable to the mechanical properties of targeted vocal fold tissues. The ease of production of these biologically active materials, coupled to their outstanding mechanical properties over a range of compositions, suggests their potential in tissue regeneration applications.

Assembly Properties of an Alanine-Rich, Lysine-Containing Peptide and the Formation of Peptide/Polymer Hybrid Hydrogels.

We are interested in developing peptide/polymer hybrid hydrogels that are chemically diverse and structurally complex. Towards this end, an alanine-based peptide doped with charged lysines with a sequence of (AKA(3)KA)(2) (AK2) was selected from the crosslinking regions of the natural elastin. Pluronic(®) F127, known to self-assemble into defined micellar structures, was employed as the synthetic building blocks. Fundamental investigations on the environmental effects on the secondary structure and assembly properties of AK2 peptide were carried out with or without the F-127 micelles. At a relatively low peptide concentration (~0.5 mg/mL), the F127 micelles are capable of not only increasing the peptide helicity but also stabilizing it against thermal denaturation. At a higher peptide concentration in basic media, the AK2 peptide developed a substantial amount of ß-sheet structure that is conducive to the formation of nanofibrils. The fibril formation was confirmed collectively by atomic force microscopy (AFM), small angle neutron scattering (SANS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The assembly kinetics is strongly dependent on solution temperature and pH; an increased temperature and a more basic environment led to faster fibril assembly. The self-assembled nanoscale structures were covalently interlocked via the Michael-type addition reaction between vinyl sulfone-decorated F127 micelles and the lysine amines exposed at the surface of the nanofibers. The crosslinked hybrid hydrogels were viscoelastic, exhibiting an elastic modulus of approximately 17 kPa and a loss tangent of 0.2.

Effects of matrix composition, microstructure, and viscoelasticity on the behaviors of vocal fold fibroblasts cultured in three-dimensional hydrogel networks.

Vocal fold diseases and disorders are difficult to treat surgically or therapeutically. Tissue engineering offers an alternative strategy for the restoration of functional vocal folds. As a first step toward vocal fold tissue engineering, we investigated the responses of primary vocal fold fibroblasts (PVFFs) to two types of collagen and hyaluronic acid (HA)-based hydrogels that are compositionally similar, but structurally variable and mechanically different. Type A hydrogels were composed of mature collagen fibers reinforced by oxidized HA, whereas type B hydrogels contained immature collagen fibrils interpenetrated in an amorphous, covalently cross-linked HA matrix. PVFFs encapsulated in either matrix adopted a fibroblastic morphology and expressed genes related to important extracellular matrix proteins. DNA analysis indicated a linear growth profile for cells encapsulated in type B gels from day 0 to 21, in contrast to an initial dormant, nonproliferative period from day 0 to 3 experienced by cells in type A gels. At the end of the culture, similar DNA content was detected in both types of constructs. A reduction in collagen content was observed for both types of constructs after 28 days of culture, with type A constructs generally retaining higher amounts of collagen than type B constructs. The HA content in the constructs decreased steadily throughout the culture, with type A constructs consistently exhibiting less HA than type B constructs. Using the torsional wave analysis, we found that the elastic moduli for type A constructs decreased sharply during the first week of culture, followed by 2 weeks of matrix stabilization without significant changes in matrix stiffness. Conversely, the elastic modulus for type B constructs increased moderately over time. It is postulated that PVFFs residing in gels alter the matrix organization, chemical compositions, and viscoelasticity through cell-mediated remodeling processes.

Structural Analysis and Mechanical Characterization of Hyaluronic Acid-Based Doubly Cross-Linked Networks.

We have created a new class of hyaluronic acid (HA)-based hydrogel materials with HA hydrogel particles (HGPs) embedded in and covalently cross-linked to a secondary network. HA HGPs with an average diameter of ∼900 nm and narrow particle size distribution were synthesized using a refined reverse micelle polymerization technique. The average mesh size of the HGPs was estimated to be approximately 5.5 to 7.0 nm by a protein uptake experiment. Sodium periodate oxidation not only introduced aldehyde groups to the particles but also reduced the average particle size. The aldehyde groups generated were used as reactive handles for subsequent cross-linking with an HA derivative containing hydrazide groups. The resulting macroscopic gels contain two distinct hierarchical networks (doubly cross-linked networks, DXNs): one within individual particles and another among different particles. Bulk gels (BGs) formed by direct mixing of HA derivatives with mutually reactive groups were included for comparison. The hydrogel microstructures were collectively characterized by microscopy and neutron scattering techniques. Their viscoelasticity was quantified at low frequencies (0.1-10 Hz) using a controlled stress rheometer and at high frequencies (up to 200 Hz) with a home-built torsional wave apparatus. Both BGs and DXNs are stable elastic gels that become stiffer at higher frequencies. The HA-based DXN offers unique structural hierarchy and mechanical properties that are suitable for soft tissue regeneration.