Caracterización del bienestar en hogares mexicanos de niñas y niños con diarrea, Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Analizar el nivel de bienestar en los hogares mexicanos de niñas y niños menores de cinco años que presentaron enfermedad diarreica aguda (EDA) en las últimas dos semanas en México, según la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 (Ensanut Continua 2022). Material y métodos. La encuesta se realizó entre julio y diciembre de 2022. Variable dependiente: ocurrencia de EDA. Variable independiente: nivel de bienestar de los hogares. Se realizó análisis bivariado y regresiones logísticas crudas y ajustadas. RESULTADOS: Se estima que 9.4% de los menores de cinco años presentaron EDA, de quienes 76.4% (IC95%: 69.0,82.5) pertenecía a hogares con nivel de bienestar bajo-medio. La EDA fue más frecuente en los niños y niñas de un año de edad (razón de momios ajustada [RMa] 3.00; IC95%: 1.76,5.11), en comparación con quienes tenían menor edad y en los hogares donde el agua para beber no es tratada (RMa 2.13; IC95%: 1.11,4.08). CONCLUSIONES: Se requiere fortalecer las medidas sanitarias preventivas de EDA en niñas y niños de un año de edad, principalmente implementar acciones para asegurar la disponibilidad de agua potable o el tratamiento adecuado para beberla, y planear, ejecutar y evaluar acciones de política pública integrales y multisectoriales para coadyuvar en garantizar el derecho humano a la salud durante la niñez.

Cobertura de vacunación en niños, niñas y adolescentes en México.

OBJETIVO: Describir las coberturas de vacunación en 2022 en niñas, niños y en adolescentes, así como comparar las prevalencias observadas con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2021 (Ensanut 2021). Material y métodos. Análisis de datos obtenidos de la Ensanut 2022. RESULTADOS: En los niños menores de cinco años, las coberturas de vacuna con Bacilo de Calmette y Guérin (BCG), hepatitis B, pentavalente o hexavalente, neumocócica, antirotavirus y triple viral (SRP) fueron de 78.5% (IC95%: 70.8,84.6), 65.1% (IC95%: 58.4,71.2), 69.0% (IC95%: 61.8,75.4), 88.0% (IC95%: 83.0,91.7), 81.6% (IC95%: 75.7,86.2) y 61.8% (IC95%: 55.6,67.6), respectivamente. Al primer y segundo año de vida, 42.6% (IC95%: 34.3,51.4) y 26.6% (IC95%: 22.1,31.5) habían recibido el esquema correspondiente. Se redujo la cobertura estimada para primera dosis de SRP 72.6% (IC95%: 67.5,77.1) vs. 61.8% (IC95%: 55.6,67.5). En adolescentes, el antecedente de vacunación contra VPH, hepatitis B, tétanos y doble viral (SR) lo refirieron en 43.7% (IC95%: 39.9,47.6), 31.8% (IC95%: 29.8,34.0), 38.5% (IC95%: 35.9,41.2) y 32.6% (IC95%: 30.15,35.1). Conclusión. No se alcanza la meta de cobertura de 90% para ningún inmunógeno investigado. La cobertura para primera dosis de SRP se ha reducido.

Porcentaje de infección respiratoria aguda en menores de cinco años en México. Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Estimar el porcentaje de infección respiratoria aguda (IRA) en menores de cinco años en las últimas dos semanas en México, de acuerdo con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 (Ensanut Continua 2022). Material y métodos. Se analizaron datos de la Ensanut Continua 2022. RESULTADOS: El porcentaje de IRA fue de 27.6% (IC95%: 25.2,30.1). La prevalencia fue mayor en el primer tercil socioeconómico (44.1% [IC95%: 38.0,50.4]). El signo de alarma IRA más identificado fue "verse más enfermo" 33.0% (IC95%: 30.1,36.0) y el menos identificado fue "salir pus del oído" (1.5% [IC95%: 0.9,2.7]). CONCLUSIONES: Las IRA afectan cerca de una tercera parte de los niños y las niñas menores de cinco años en México, particularmente de los hogares con menores capacidades económicas. Es necesario fortalecer las estrategias de prevención, entre ellas la vacunación, el control y la promoción de la salud.

Porcentaje de enfermedad diarreica aguda en menores de cinco años en México. Ensanut Continua 2022.

OBJETIVO: Estimar el porcentaje de enfermedad diarreica aguda (EDA) en menores de cinco años en las últimas dos semanas, de acuerdo con los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022. Material y métodos. Se analizaron los datos de menores de cinco años incluidos en la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición Continua 2022 respecto a la EDA en las últimas dos semanas. Se compararon los datos con los de ediciones previas de la encuesta. RESULTADOS: El porcentaje de EDA en México fue de 9.4% (IC95%: 7.9,11.2), similar al de 2000, con diferencias por grupo etario. Durante el episodio de EDA, 38.7% (IC95%: 27.7,51.0) de las personas cuidadoras ofrecen menor cantidad de alimentos a la habitual. CONCLUSIONES: El elevado porcentaje de EDA en menores de cinco años en México en el 2022 evidencia la necesidad de fortalecer estrategias de prevención y promoción de la salud.

Vacunación en adultos y adultos mayores en México.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia del antecedente de vacunación en adultos de 20 a 59 años y mayores de 60 años mediante autorreporte. Material y métodos. Análisis de datos obtenidos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2022 (Ensanut 2022). RESULTADOS: El 27.4% de los adultos de 20-39 años refirió haber recibido vacuna doble viral (sarampión y rubeola [SR]) y 57.3% de adultos de 20-59 años cualquier vacuna con toxoide tetánico (Td) en los últimos diez años. En mujeres de 29 a 49 años, 18.7% (IC95%: 17.0,20.5) y 58.46% (IC95%: 56.2,60.7) habían sido vacunadas con vacuna SR y Td, respectivamente. En mayores de 60 años, 48.8% (IC95%: 45.9,51.7), 24.4% (IC95%: 22.2,26.8) y 49.1% (IC95%: 46.1,52.2) informaron haber recibido cualquier vacuna conteniendo Td, vacuna antineumococo y vacuna antiinfluenza estacional desde septiembre del año anterior a la encuesta, respectivamente. Conclusión. Los resultados de este estudio muestran que una proporción considerable de adultos, mujeres en edad fértil y adultos mayores no estaban protegidos contra enfermedades prevenibles por vacunación en 2022.

Evaluating the impact of mobility in COVID-19 incidence and mortality: A case study from four states of Mexico.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico began at the end of February 2020. An essential component of control strategies was to reduce mobility. We aimed to evaluate the impact of mobility on COVID- incidence and mortality rates during the initial months of the pandemic in selected states. Methods: COVID-19 incidence data were obtained from the Open Data Epidemiology Resource provided by the Mexican government. Mobility data was obtained from the Observatory for COVID-19 in the Americas of the University of Miami. We selected four states according to their compliance with non-pharmaceutical interventions and mobility index. We constructed time series and analyzed change-points for mobility, incidence, and mortality rates. We correlated mobility with incidence and mortality rates for each time interval. Using mixed-effects Poisson models, we evaluated the impact of reductions in mobility on incidence and mortality rates, adjusting all models for medical services and the percentage of the population living in poverty. Results: After the initial decline in mobility experienced in early April, a sustained increase in mobility followed during the rest of the country-wide suspension of non-essential activities and the return to other activities throughout mid-April and May. We identified that a 1% increase in mobility yielded a 5.2 and a 2.9% increase in the risk of COVID-19 incidence and mortality, respectively. Mobility was estimated to contribute 8.5 and 3.8% to the variability in incidence and mortality, respectively. In fully adjusted models, the contribution of mobility to positive COVID-19 incidence and mortality was sustained. When assessing the impact of mobility in each state compared to the state of Baja California, increased mobility conferred an increased risk of incident positive COVID-19 cases in Mexico City, Jalisco, and Nuevo León. However, for COVID-19 mortality, a differential impact of mobility was only observed with Jalisco and Nuevo León compared to Baja California. Conclusion: Mobility had heterogeneous impacts on COVID-19 rates in different regions of Mexico, indicating that sociodemographic characteristics and regional-level pandemic dynamics modified the impact of reductions in mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic. The implementation of non-pharmaceutical interventions should be regionalized based on local epidemiology for timely response against future pandemics.

Genotyping and spatial analysis of pulmonary tuberculosis and diabetes cases in the state of Veracruz, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Genotyping and georeferencing in tuberculosis (TB) have been used to characterize the distribution of the disease and occurrence of transmission within specific groups and communities. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that diabetes mellitus (DM) and pulmonary TB may occur in spatial and molecular aggregations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of patients with pulmonary TB. The study area included 12 municipalities in the Sanitary Jurisdiction of Orizaba, Veracruz, México. Patients with acid-fast bacilli in sputum smears and/or Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum cultures were recruited from 1995 to 2010. Clinical (standardized questionnaire, physical examination, chest X-ray, blood glucose test and HIV test), microbiological, epidemiological, and molecular evaluations were carried out. Patients were considered "genotype-clustered" if two or more isolates from different patients were identified within 12 months of each other and had six or more IS6110 bands in an identical pattern, or < 6 bands with identical IS6110 RFLP patterns and spoligotype with the same spacer oligonucleotides. Residential and health care centers addresses were georeferenced. We used a Jeep hand GPS. The coordinates were transferred from the GPS files to ArcGIS using ArcMap 9.3. We evaluated global spatial aggregation of patients in IS6110-RFLP/ spoligotype clusters using global Moran´s I. Since global distribution was not random, we evaluated "hotspots" using Getis-Ord Gi* statistic. Using bivariate and multivariate analysis we analyzed sociodemographic, behavioral, clinic and bacteriological conditions associated with "hotspots". We used STATA® v13.1 for all statistical analysis. RESULTS: From 1995 to 2010, 1,370 patients >20 years were diagnosed with pulmonary TB; 33% had DM. The proportion of isolates that were genotyped was 80.7% (n = 1105), of which 31% (n = 342) were grouped in 91 genotype clusters with 2 to 23 patients each; 65.9% of total clusters were small (2 members) involving 35.08% of patients. Twenty three (22.7) percent of cases were classified as recent transmission. Moran`s I indicated that distribution of patients in IS6110-RFLP/spoligotype clusters was not random (Moran`s I = 0.035468, Z value = 7.0, p = 0.00). Local spatial analysis showed statistically significant spatial aggregation of patients in IS6110-RFLP/spoligotype clusters identifying "hotspots" and "coldspots". GI* statistic showed that the hotspot for spatial clustering was located in Camerino Z. Mendoza municipality; 14.6% (50/342) of patients in genotype clusters were located in a hotspot; of these, 60% (30/50) lived with DM. Using logistic regression the statistically significant variables associated with hotspots were: DM [adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) 7.04, 95% Confidence interval (CI) 3.03-16.38] and attending the health center in Camerino Z. Mendoza (aOR18.04, 95% CI 7.35-44.28). CONCLUSIONS: The combination of molecular and epidemiological information with geospatial data allowed us to identify the concurrence of molecular clustering and spatial aggregation of patients with DM and TB. This information may be highly useful for TB control programs.

Isoniazid Mono-Resistant Tuberculosis: Impact on Treatment Outcome and Survival of Pulmonary Tuberculosis Patients in Southern Mexico 1995-2010.

BACKGROUND: Isoniazid mono-resistance (IMR) is the most common form of mono-resistance; its world prevalence is estimated to range between 0.0 to 9.5% globally. There is no consensus on how these patients should be treated. OBJECTIVE: To describe the impact of IMR tuberculosis (TB) on treatment outcome and survival among pulmonary TB patients treated under programmatic conditions in Orizaba, Veracruz, Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of pulmonary TB patients in Southern Mexico. From 1995 to 2010 patients with acid-fast bacilli or culture proven Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples underwent epidemiological, clinical and microbiological evaluation. We included patients who harbored isoniazid mono-resistant (IMR) strains and patients with strains susceptible to isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol and streptomycin. All patients were treated following Mexican TB Program guidelines. We performed annual follow-up to ascertain treatment outcome, recurrence, relapse and mortality. RESULTS: Between 1995 and 2010 1,243 patients with pulmonary TB were recruited; 902/1,243 (72.57%) had drug susceptibility testing; 716 (79.38%) harbored pan-susceptible and 88 (9.75%) IMR strains. Having any contact with a person with TB (adjusted odds ratio (aOR)) 1.85, 95% Confidence interval (CI) 1.15-2.96) and homelessness (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.76, 95% CI 1.08-6.99) were associated with IMR. IMR patients had a higher probability of failure (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 12.35, 95% CI 3.38-45.15) and death due to TB among HIV negative patients (aHR 3.30. 95% CI 1.00-10.84). All the models were adjusted for socio-demographic and clinical variables. CONCLUSIONS: The results from our study provide evidence that the standardized treatment schedule with first line drugs in new and previously treated cases with pulmonary TB and IMR produces a high frequency of treatment failure and death due to tuberculosis. We recommend re-evaluating the optimal schedule for patients harboring IMR. It is necessary to strengthen scientific research for the evaluation of alternative treatment schedules in similar settings.

Impact of cigarette smoking on rates and clinical prognosis of pulmonary tuberculosis in Southern Mexico.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the relationship between cigarette smoking and incidence and mortality rates of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) and treatment outcomes. MATERIALS: From 1995 to 2010, we analyzed data from 1062 patients with TB and from 2001 to 2004, 2951 contacts in Southern Mexico. Patients with acid-fast bacilli or Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples underwent epidemiological, clinical and mycobacteriological evaluation and received treatment by the local DOTS program. RESULTS: Consumers of 1-10 (LS) or 11 or more (HS) cigarettes per day incidence (1.75 and 11.79) and mortality (HS, 17.74) smoker-non-smoker rate ratios were significantly higher for smokers. Smoker population was more likely to experience unfavorable treatment outcomes (HS, adjusted OR 2.36) and retreatment (LS and HS, adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 2.14 and 2.37). Contacts that smoked had a higher probability of developing active TB (HR 2.38) during follow up. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate the need of incorporating smoking prevention and cessation, especially among men, into international TB control strategies.

Association of diabetes and tuberculosis: impact on treatment and post-treatment outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the clinical consequences of pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) among patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). METHODS: We conducted a prospective study of patients with TB in Southern Mexico. From 1995 to 2010, patients with acid-fast bacilli or Mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum samples underwent epidemiological, clinical and microbiological evaluation. Annual follow-ups were performed to ascertain treatment outcome, recurrence, relapse and reinfection. RESULTS: The prevalence of DM among 1262 patients with pulmonary TB was 29.63% (n=374). Patients with DM and pulmonary TB had more severe clinical manifestations (cavities of any size on the chest x-ray, adjusted OR (aOR) 1.80, 95% CI 1.35 to 2.41), delayed sputum conversion (aOR 1.51, 95% CI 1.09 to 2.10), a higher probability of treatment failure (aOR 2.93, 95% CI 1.18 to 7.23), recurrence (adjusted HR (aHR) 1.76, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.79) and relapse (aHR 1.83, 95% CI 1.04 to 3.23). Most of the second episodes among patients with DM were caused by bacteria with the same genotype but, in 5/26 instances (19.23%), reinfection with a different strain occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Given the growing epidemic of DM worldwide, it is necessary to add DM prevention and control strategies to TB control programmes and vice versa and to evaluate their effectiveness. The concurrence of both diseases potentially carries a risk of global spreading, with serious implications for TB control and the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

Tuberculosis in ageing: high rates, complex diagnosis and poor clinical outcomes.

BACKGROUND: worldwide, the frequency of tuberculosis among older people almost triples that observed among young adults. OBJECTIVE: to describe clinical and epidemiological consequences of pulmonary tuberculosis among older people. METHODS: we screened persons with a cough lasting more than 2 weeks in Southern Mexico from March 1995 to February 2007. We collected clinical and mycobacteriological information (isolation, identification, drug-susceptibility testing and IS6110-based genotyping and spoligotyping) from individuals with bacteriologically confirmed pulmonary tuberculosis. Patients were treated in accordance with official norms and followed to ascertain treatment outcomes, retreatment, and vital status. RESULTS: eight hundred ninety-three tuberculosis patients were older than 15 years of age; of these, 147 (16.5%) were 65 years of age or older. Individuals ≥ 65 years had significantly higher rates of recently transmitted and reactivated tuberculosis. Older age was associated with treatment failure (OR=5.37; 95% CI: 1.06-27.23; P=0.042), and death due to tuberculosis (HR=3.52; 95% CI: 1.78-6.96; P<0.001) adjusting for sociodemographic and clinical variables. CONCLUSIONS: community-dwelling older individuals participate in chains of transmission indicating that tuberculosis is not solely due to the reactivation of latent disease. Untimely and difficult diagnosis and a higher risk of poor outcomes even after treatment completion emphasise the need for specific strategies for this vulnerable group.

Surveillance of nosocomial infections in a Mexican community hospital: how are we doing? / Vigilancia epidemiológica de infecciones nosocomiales en un hospital comunitario de México: ¿Cómo vamos?

OBJECTIVE. To compare the nosocomial infection (NI) rate obtained from a retrospective review of clinical charts with that from the routine nosocomial infection surveillance system in a community hospital. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Retrospective review of a randomized sample of clinical charts.Results were compared to standard surveillance using crude and adjusted analyses. RESULTS. A total of 440 discharges were reviewed, there were 27 episodes of NIs among 22 patients. Cumulated incidence was 6.13 NI per 100 discharges. Diarrhea, pneumonia and peritonitis were the most common infections. Predictors of NI by Cox regression analysis included pleural catheter (HR 16.38), entry through the emergency ward, hospitalization in the intensive care unit (HR 7.19), and placement of orotracheal tube (HR 5.54). CONCLUSIONS. Frequency of NIs in this community hospital was high and underestimated. We identified urgent needs in the areas of training and monitoring.

OBJETIVO. Comparar la tasa de infecciones nosocomiales (IN) resultante de la revisión retrospectiva de expedientes clínicos con los resultados del sistema rutinario de vigilancia de IN de un hospital general. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS. Revisión retrospectiva de una muestra seleccionada aleatoriamente de expedientes clínicos. Comparación con los resultados obtenidos por el sistema rutinario de vigilancia de IN. Análisis bivariado y multivariado de datos retrospectivos. RESULTADOS. De 440 egresos hubo 27 episodios de IN en 22 pacientes. La incidencia acumulada fue de 6.13 IN por 100 egresos. Las infecciones más frecuentes fueron diarrea, neumonía y peritonitis. Los predictores de IN fueron catéter pleural (HR 16.38), ingreso por urgencias y estancia en cuidados intensivos (HR 7.19), y colocación de tubo orotraqueal (HR 5.54). CONCLUSIONES. La frecuencia de IN fue elevada y subestimada por el sistema rutinario. Identificamos necesidades urgentes de monitoreo y entrenamiento en áreas específicas.

Surveillance of nosocomial infections in a Mexican community hospital. How are we doing?

OBJECTIVE: To compare the nosocomial infection (NI) rate obtained from a retrospective review of clinical charts with that from the routine nosocomial infection surveillance system in a community hospital. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Retrospective review of a randomized sample of clinical charts.Results were compared to standard surveillance using crude and adjusted analyses. RESULTS: A total of 440 discharges were reviewed, there were 27 episodes of NIs among 22 patients. Cumulated incidence was 6.13 NI per 100 discharges. Diarrhea, pneumonia and peritonitis were the most common infections. Predictors of NI by Cox regression analysis included pleural catheter (HR 16.38), entry through the emergency ward, hospitalization in the intensive care unit (HR 7.19), and placement of orotracheal tube (HR 5.54). CONCLUSIONS: Frequency of NIs in this community hospital was high and underestimated. We identified urgent needs in the areas of training and monitoring.