Multiregion ultra-deep sequencing reveals early intermixing and variable levels of intratumoral heterogeneity in colorectal cancer.

Intratumor heterogeneity (ITH) contributes to cancer progression and chemoresistance. We sought to comprehensively describe ITH of somatic mutations, copy number, and transcriptomic alterations involving clinically and biologically relevant gene pathways in colorectal cancer (CRC). We performed multiregion, high-depth (384× on average) sequencing of 799 cancer-associated genes in 24 spatially separated primary tumor and nonmalignant tissues from four treatment-naïve CRC patients. We then used ultra-deep sequencing (17 075× on average) to accurately verify the presence or absence of identified somatic mutations in each sector. We also digitally measured gene expression and copy number alterations using NanoString assays. We identified the subclonal point mutations and determined the mutational timing and phylogenetic relationships among spatially separated sectors of each tumor. Truncal mutations, those shared by all sectors in the tumor, affected the well-described driver genes such as APC, TP53, and KRAS. With sequencing at 17 075×, we found that mutations first detected at a sequencing depth of 384× were in fact more widely shared among sectors than originally assessed. Interestingly, ultra-deep sequencing also revealed some mutations that were present in all spatially dispersed sectors, but at subclonal levels. Ultra-high-depth validation sequencing, copy number analysis, and gene expression profiling provided a comprehensive and accurate genomic landscape of spatial heterogeneity in CRC. Ultra-deep sequencing allowed more sensitive detection of somatic mutations and a more accurate assessment of ITH. By detecting the subclonal mutations with ultra-deep sequencing, we traced the genomic histories of each tumor and the relative timing of mutational events. We found evidence of early mixing, in which the subclonal ancestral mutations intermixed across the sectors before the acquisition of subsequent nontruncal mutations. Our findings also indicate that different CRC patients display markedly variable ITH, suggesting that each patient's tumor possesses a unique genomic history and spatial organization.

Tumor-derived circulating endothelial cell clusters in colorectal cancer.

Clusters of tumor cells are often observed in the blood of cancer patients. These structures have been described as malignant entities for more than 50 years, although their comprehensive characterization is lacking. Contrary to current consensus, we demonstrate that a discrete population of circulating cell clusters isolated from the blood of colorectal cancer patients are not cancerous but consist of tumor-derived endothelial cells. These clusters express both epithelial and mesenchymal markers, consistent with previous reports on circulating tumor cell (CTC) phenotyping. However, unlike CTCs, they do not mirror the genetic variations of matched tumors. Transcriptomic analysis of single clusters revealed that these structures exhibit an endothelial phenotype and can be traced back to the tumor endothelium. Further results show that tumor-derived endothelial clusters do not form by coagulation or by outgrowth of single circulating endothelial cells, supporting a direct release of clusters from the tumor vasculature. The isolation and enumeration of these benign clusters distinguished healthy volunteers from treatment-naïve as well as pathological early-stage (≤IIA) colorectal cancer patients with high accuracy, suggesting that tumor-derived circulating endothelial cell clusters could be used as a means of noninvasive screening for colorectal cancer. In contrast to CTCs, tumor-derived endothelial cell clusters may also provide important information about the underlying tumor vasculature at the time of diagnosis, during treatment, and throughout the course of the disease.

Technical Validation of a Next-Generation Sequencing Assay for Detecting Actionable Mutations in Patients with Gastrointestinal Cancer.

Targeted next-generation sequencing is becoming increasingly common as a clinical diagnostic and prognostic test for patient- and tumor-specific genetic profiles as well as to optimally select targeted therapies. Here, we describe a custom-developed, next-generation sequencing test for detecting single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) and short insertions and deletions (indels) in 93 genes related to gastrointestinal cancer from routine formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded clinical specimens. We implemented a validation strategy, based on the College of American Pathologists requirements, using reference DNA mixtures from cell lines with known genetic variants, which model a broad range of allele frequencies. Test sensitivity achieved >99% for both SNVs and indels, with allele frequencies >10%, with high specificity (97.4% for SNVs and 93.6% for indels). We further confirmed test accuracies using primary formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded colorectal cancer specimens characterized by alternative and conventional clinical diagnostic technologies. Robust performance was observed on the formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens: sensitivity was 97.2% and specificity was 99.2%. We also observed high intrarun and inter-run reproducibility, as well as a low cross-contamination rate. Overall assessment using cell line samples and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded samples showed that our custom next-generation sequencing assay has consistent detection sensitivity down to 10% variant frequency.

High-depth sequencing of over 750 genes supports linear progression of primary tumors and metastases in most patients with liver-limited metastatic colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer with metastases limited to the liver (liver-limited mCRC) is a distinct clinical subset characterized by possible cure with surgery. We performed high-depth sequencing of over 750 cancer-associated genes and copy number profiling in matched primary, metastasis and normal tissues to characterize genomic progression in 18 patients with liver-limited mCRC. RESULTS: High depth Illumina sequencing and use of three different variant callers enable comprehensive and accurate identification of somatic variants down to 2.5% variant allele frequency. We identify a median of 11 somatic single nucleotide variants (SNVs) per tumor. Across patients, a median of 79.3% of somatic SNVs present in the primary are present in the metastasis and 81.7% of all alterations present in the metastasis are present in the primary. Private alterations are found at lower allele frequencies; a different mutational signature characterized shared and private variants, suggesting distinct mutational processes. Using B-allele frequencies of heterozygous germline SNPs and copy number profiling, we find that broad regions of allelic imbalance and focal copy number changes, respectively, are generally shared between the primary tumor and metastasis. CONCLUSIONS: Our analyses point to high genomic concordance of primary tumor and metastasis, with a thick common trunk and smaller genomic branches in general support of the linear progression model in most patients with liver-limited mCRC. More extensive studies are warranted to further characterize genomic progression in this important clinical population.