Attitude-behaviour relations: the role of in-group norms and mode of behavioural decision-making.

Two experiments provided support for the central hypothesis--derived from social identity/self-categorization theories--that attitudes would be most likely to predict behaviour when they were supported by a congruent in-group norm. In the first experiment, norm congruency and mode of behavioural decision-making (spontaneous or deliberative) were orthogonally manipulated in a between-subjects study of career choice in psychology. Participants exposed to an attitudinally congruent in-group norm towards their preferred career choice were more likely to display attitude-behaviour consistency than those exposed to an attitudinally inconsistent group norm, an effect that was evident under both spontaneous and deliberative decision-making conditions. Using a mock jury paradigm, Expt 2 replicated and extended the first experiment by including a manipulation of in-group salience. As predicted, participants exposed to an incongruent norm displayed greater attitude-behaviour inconsistency than those exposed to a congruent norm. Contrary to predictions, this effect did not vary as a function of group salience, nor did the effects of group norms for high and low salience participants vary as a function of mode of behavioural decision-making. However, there was evidence that perceived identification with the group moderated the influence of norms on attitude-behaviour consistency.

Effects of a program of intervention on parental distress following infant death.

A longitudinal study of 144 parents (65 fathers, 79 mothers) was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of a program of intervention in relieving the psychological distress of parents affected by infant death. Participants were assessed in terms of their psychiatric disturbance, depression, anxiety, physical symptoms, dyadic adjustment, and coping strategies. The experimental group (n = 84) was offered an intervention program comprising the use of specially designed resources and contact with a trained grief worker. A control group (n = 60) was given routine community care. Parental reactions were assessed at four to six weeks postloss (prior to the implementation of the intervention program), at six months postloss, and at 15 months postloss. A series of multivariate analyses of variance revealed that the intervention was effective in reducing the distress of parents, particularly those assessed prior to the intervention as being at high-risk of developing mourning difficulties. Effects of the intervention were noted in terms of parents' overall psychiatric disturbance, marital quality, and paternal coping strategies.

The role of cognitive vulnerability and stress in the prediction of postpartum depressive symptomatology.

OBJECTIVES: The present study was designed to test the diathesis-stress components of Beck's cognitive theory of depression and the reformulated learned helplessness model of depression in the prediction of postpartum depressive symptomatology. DESIGN AND METHODS: The research used a two-wave longitudinal design--data were collected from 65 primiparous women during their third trimester of pregnancy and then 6 weeks after the birth. Cognitive vulnerability and initial depressive symptomatology were assessed at Time 1, whereas stress and postpartum depressive symptomatology were assessed at Time 2. RESULTS: There was some support for the diathesis-stress component of Beck's cognitive theory, to the extent that the negative relationship between both general and maternal-specific dysfunctional attitudes associated with performance evaluation and Time 2 depressive symptomatology was strongest for women who reported high levels of parental stress. In a similar vein, the effects of dysfunctional attitudes (general and maternal-specific) associated with performance evaluation and need for approval (general measure only) on partner ratings of emotional distress were evident only among those women whose infants were rated as being temperamentally difficult. CONCLUSION: There was no support for the diathesis-stress component of the reformulated learned helplessness model of depression; however, there was some support for the diathesis-stress component of Beck's cognitive theory.

Attachment style as a piedictor of sexual attitudes and behavior in late Adolescence.

Abstract This research applied attachment theory to the study of sexual attitudes and behaviors in a sample of late adolescents. Four hundred and seventy heterosexual undergraduate students completed questionnaires assessing attachment (discomfort with closeness; anxiety over relationships). relationship history, communication about sex. sexual self-efficacy and locus of control, and attitudes to condoms. Eight weeks later, participants reported on sexual behaviors occurring during the eight-week interval. and perceived risk of these activities. Both discomfort with closeness and anxiety over relationships were associated with external locus of control for sexual outcomes, and with use of drugs before sexual contact. Anxiety over relationships was linked to unsafe sex and to negative attitudes to condoms, but discomfort with closeness was associated with a more cautious approach to sexual risk-taking. Some results were qualified by gender differences. and by differences between the full sample and those who were sexually active. The findings arc discussed in terms of attachment style and its links with communication and affect regulation. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that attachment dimensions are reliably related to many aspects of sexual attitudes and behaviors among late adolescents. Insecure attachment was linked to increased drug use before sexual contact. Anxiety over relationships was also linked to less safe sexual practice, but discomfort with closeness was associated with a tendency for males to be cautious about sexual risk-taking. The results support the utility of the attachment perspective on adolescent sexuality, but also highlight the complex relations between attachment dimensions and sexual outcomes. Future research would benefit from more detailed investigations of the attitudes, emotions, and cognitions which may mediate the link between attachment style and sexual behavior. For example, those who are highly anxious about their relationships may engage in more risky sexual practices because they fear that non-compliance with partners' wishes will jeopardize their relationship; the tendency to engage in drug use before sexual cpntact may reflect their attempts to boost self-confidence or to manage negative mood states. Research into these issues has the potential to explain how attachment insecurity is played out in patterns of sexual activity.

The theory of planned behaviour: self-identity, social identity and group norms.

The aim of the present study was to examine further the role that self-identity plays in the theory of planned behaviour and, more specifically, to: (1) examine the combined effects of self-identity and social identity constructs on intention and behaviour, and (2) examine the effects of self-identity as a function of past experience of performing the behaviour. The study was concerned with the prediction of intention to engage in household recycling and reported recycling behaviour. A sample of 143 community residents participated in the study. It was prospective in design: measures of the predictors and intention were obtained at the first wave of data collection, whereas behaviour was assessed two weeks later. Self-identity significantly predicted behavioural intention, a relationship that was not dependent on the extent to which the behaviour had been performed in the past. As expected, there was also evidence that the perceived norm of a behaviourally relevant reference group was related to behavioural intention, but only for participants who identified strongly with the group, whereas the relationship between perceived behavioural control (a personal factor) and intention was strongest for low identifiers.

Responses to an in-basket activity: the role of work stress, behavioral control, and informational control.

This study was undertaken to examine the main and interactive effects of work stress and work control on levels of adjustment. Work stress, behavioral control, and informational control were manipulated in an experimental setting in which participants (N = 192) completed an in-basket activity. Although minimal support was found for the main and interactive effects of objective work stress, behavioral control, and informational control on adjustment, analyses involving the subjective measures of these variables revealed strong support for the proposal that work stress, behavioral control, and informational control would exert main effects on adjustment. There was also evidence that subjective levels of behavioral control buffered the negative effects of subjective work stress on positive mood, subjective task performance, and task satisfaction.

Depressive symptomatology in new mothers: a stress and coping perspective.

The aim of the present research was to test the utility of a stress-coping model of postpartum depression. Data were collected during the last trimester of pregnancy (n = 197) and twice after the birth (4 weeks, n = 180, and approximately 5 months, n = 163). Coping resources and depressive symptomatology were assessed at Time 1, stress and coping were assessed at Time 2, and depressive symptomatology and partner ratings of coping effectiveness were assessed at Times 2 and 3. After control of the effects of initial depression, there was evidence of significant effects of levels of stress and coping responses on the Time 2 and Time 3 outcome measures. There were also some evidence linking coping resources (particularly self-esteem and family support) to postpartum depressive symptomatology.

Adaptive demands along the HIV disease continuum.

Our knowledge of the problems or adaptive demands associated with HIV infection has largely been derived from clinical history taking and qualitative research of persons with AIDS. This study uses a behaviour-analytic approach to systematically describe and quantify the specific adaptive demands encountered by persons with HIV across the disease continuum. Ninety six HIV-infected gay men and 33 seronegative comparison group participants were interviewed in depth. Participants were divided into three groups representing the disease continuum: seronegative, HIV asymptomatic and HIV symptomatic groups. Responses to a Problem Checklist were statistically and content analysed. Distressing emotions, relationship difficulties and HIV-related symptoms were the three most frequently endorsed problems and were also the three most frequently reported problems of most concern. Overall there was a trend for instrumental difficulties to increase with disease progression, whereas emotional and existential problems did not vary as a function of HIV stage. The behaviour-analytic approach to the specification of problems related to HIV infection has implications for both clinical and research endeavours. The specification of problems provided a means for accurately identifying common problems to target and could, therefore, provide the basis for developing suitably matched interventions for use with HIV-infected persons.

The effects of coping on adjustment: Re-examining the goodness of fit model of coping effectiveness.

Abstract The primary aim of the present study was to examine the extent to which the effects of coping on adjustment are moderated by levels of event controllability. Specifically, the research tested two revisions to the goodness of fit model of coping effectiveness. First, it was hypothesized that the effects of problem management coping (but not problem appraisal coping) would be moderated by levels of event controllability. Second, it was hypothesized that the effects of emotion-focused coping would be moderated by event controllability, but only in the acute phase of a stressful encounter. To test these predictions, a longitudinal study was undertaken (185 undergraduate students participated in all three stages of the research). Measures of initial adjustment (low depression and coping efficacy) were obtained at Time 1. Four weeks later (Time 2), coping responses to a current or a recent stressor were assessed. Based on subjects' descriptions of the event, objective and subjective measures of event controllability were also obtained. Measures of concurrent and subsequent adjustment were obtained at Times 2 and 3 (two weeks later), respectively. There was only weak support for the goodness of fit model of coping effectiveness. The beneficial effects of a high proportion of problem management coping (relative to total coping efforts) on Time 3 perceptions of coping efficacy were more evident in high control than in low control situations. Other results of the research revealed that, irrespective of the controllability of the event, problem appraisal coping strategies and emotion-focused strategies (escapism and self-denigration) were associated with high and low levels of concurrent adjustment, respectively. The effects of these coping responses on subsequent adjustment were mediated through concurrent levels of adjustment.

The theory of planned behaviour: the effects of perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy.

The present study was undertaken to assess the utility of the theory of planned behaviour, using separate measures of the two variables that are considered to comprise the notion of perceived behavioural control, namely, beliefs concerning the controllability of the behaviour and efficacy expectancies. The study was concerned with the prediction of intentions to engage in regular exercise (for at least 20 minutes, three times a week for a fortnight) and actual exercise behaviour. A sample of 146 undergraduate subjects participated in the study. It was prospective in design; measures of attitudes, norms, intentions, perceived control and self-efficacy were obtained at the first wave of data collection, while actual behaviour was assessed two weeks later. The results of the study revealed support for the view that separate measures of self-efficacy and perceived behavioural control should be employed in the theory of planned behaviour. In the first instance, confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the two variables could be empirically distinguished. Second, the effects of perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy on behavioural intentions and actual behaviour differed. As predicted, efficacy expectancies influenced behavioural intentions, but not actual behaviour. In contrast, levels of perceived behavioural control had no effect on behavioural intentions, but emerged as a significant (positive) predictor of actual behaviour (there was also evidence that the effects of intentions on behaviour were moderated by the level of perceived behavioural control).

Carers' burden and adjustment to HIV.

Empirical evidence from well designed studies into the effects on carers of caring for a person with HIV is lacking. This study investigated the correlates of carers' burden and adjustment to their caring for a person with HIV. Thirty-four carers and their HIV-infected patients were interviewed and completed self-administered scales. Measures included two psychosocial adjustment indices, a Problem Checklist (burden) and two patient health status indices. The most common elements of carer's burden were distressing emotions, relationship difficulties, somatic symptoms, and grief. Demographic variables, patient's HIV stage, nature of caregiving relationship and duration of caregiving were unrelated to carers' burden or adjustment. However, living arrangement was found to be significantly associated with carers' burden, with those carers co-residing experiencing more burden than those living apart from the patient. Carers' coping strategies were only weakly related to carer's adjustment and burden. The patients' emotional and existential concerns were strongly positively related to carers' burden and all domains of adjustment, while patients' instrumental concerns and measures of patients' health status were positively related to carers' burden. As predicted, patients had significantly poorer levels of adjustment than carers. The findings supported the use of a reciprocal determinism approach for understanding the relationship between the patient and carer and adjustment outcomes.

Employee adjustment to stress: The role of coping resources, situational factors, and coping responses.

Abstract The present study was designed to examine further the stress-adjustment relationship in employees. Specifically, the relations among employees' coping resources (self-esteem, generalized control beliefs, neuroticism, and social support), their appraisals of a recent stressful event experienced at work (appraised stress, self-efficacy, and situational control beliefs), the coping strategies (problem- and emotion-focused coping) used to deal with the event, and levels of employee adjustment (psychological well-being and job satisfaction) were examined. Data were collected from 153 male and female employees in a public sector department, employed in a range of middle-management administrative activities. The data provided support for a modified version of a model that proposed that both situational appraisals and coping strategies are mediating processes in the stress-adjustment relationship. There was evidence that employees' coping responses to the recent stressful event experienced at work were related to concurrent levels of adjustment. As predicted, the use of problem-focused coping, in general, had positive relationships with the measures of adjustment, whereas the effects of emotion-focused coping were generally negative (there was, however, some evidence that the effects of coping were dependent on event controllability). There was also evidence that coping resources had both direct and indirect effects (via coping and via situational appraisals) on employee adjustment. The latter effects were most marked for generalized control beliefs and self-esteem. Situational appraisals (in particular, efficacy expectancies) also had indirect effects on employee adjustment, through their effects on coping responses.

Relationships between adjustment to HIV and both social support and coping.

This study examined the relationships between HIV stage, social support, coping strategies, and adjustment to HIV. Ninety-six HIV-infected gay men and 33 seronegative comparison group participants participated in the study. In general, coping strategies and social support did not differ according to HIV stage. As predicted, adjustment was related to social support and coping strategies. Coping strategies were linked to psychosocial adjustment, whereas social support was more strongly associated with health-related variables. There was little evidence of buffering effects of either coping strategies or social support. Four coping strategies were related to low levels of psychological distress. Contrary to expectation, the relationships between coping strategies and adjustment did not vary as a function of HIV stage. However, the relationship between adjustment and some elements of social support varied as a function of HIV stage.

Determinants of coping: the role of stable and situational factors.

A longitudinal study of 243 students was conducted to examine the stable and situational influences on coping. At Time 1, measures of coping in response to a recent event (initial coping) and coping resources were obtained. At Time 2 (4 weeks later), Ss described an event (coded for event type) they were currently experiencing. Situational appraisals were also assessed. At Time 3 (2 weeks later), Ss' coping responses to the event were assessed. There was evidence that stable factors did influence coping behavior. Coping resources accounted for a significant proportion of variance in each of the measures of coping (except cautiousness), as did initial coping. There was evidence that the latter effects were dependent on cross-situational consistency in event type and levels of stress. After controlling for the stable influences, situational factors (situation type and situational appraisals) influenced the type of coping used.

The psychological well-being of infertile women after a failed IVF attempt: the effects of coping.

One hundred infertile women and 73 female controls completed three measures of psychological well-being (depression, self-esteem and self-confidence) on two occasions (Times 1 and 2), coinciding with the beginning and end of a failed IVF attempt by the infertile women. At Time 2, the IVF women were also asked to indicate whether they had used a number of different coping responses, in relation to dealing with their failed IVF attempt. As predicted, IVF women were more depressed and had lower self-esteem than controls prior to the treatment cycle, and both before and after the treatment cycle they were less self-confident. After the failed IVF procedure, IVF women were more depressed and had lower levels of self-esteem than they did prior to the treatment cycle. In terms of the effects of coping on the post-attempt well-being of the IVF women, the use of problem-focused coping was associated with high levels of well-being, while the use of avoidance coping and seeking social support was associated with low levels of well-being.

Stress, coping and coping resources as correlates of adaptation in myocardial infarction patients.

A longitudinal study was conducted to examine the utility of a set of variables derived from the stress and coping literature as correlates of patients' level of psychosocial adaptation to a myocardial infarction. Forty patients participated in the study; data were collected soon after the patients' discharge from hospital and three months after the event. It was proposed that a high level of perceived stress associated with the infarct and the use of emotion-focused coping strategies would be associated with poor adaptation to the event, whereas the use of problem-focused strategies, high levels of self-efficacy and access to the appropriate personal (control beliefs, self-esteem and trait anxiety) and social (marital and family quality) coping resources were variables proposed to facilitate adaptation. There was only weak support for the proposed effects of perceived stress, and no support for the proposal that the use of problem-focused strategies would facilitate the adaptation of infarct patients. In contrast, the data provided some support for the hypothesized effects of self-efficacy and emotion-focused coping. There was also evidence to suggest that adaptation to an infarct was facilitated if subjects had internal control beliefs, high self-esteem, low trait anxiety and high-quality family relations. Contrary to expectations, marital quality was largely unrelated to the measures of adaptation.

Role dissatisfaction and the decline in marital quality across the transition to parenthood.

PIP: In the examination of role dissatisfaction and decline in marital quality across the transition to parenthood, it is postulated that 1) there would be a decline in the mean level of marital quality particularly among females, and 2) that the level of perceived inequity in postpartum allocation of marital roles would moderate the effects of the transition. A background review of pertinent literature pertaining to role dissatisfaction is presented, and found to be complex. Role inequity was measured as the level of dissatisfaction with a partner's contribution to a range of different role activities postpartum. The Australian sample was comprised of 59 primiparous couples who reported levels of marital satisfaction during the last trimester of pregnancy (Time 1) and then 3 months after the birth of the baby (Time 2). Couples were recruited from a variety of sources: private physicians, childbirth classes, and public hospitals. Average marriage duration was 3.5 years. Mean female age was 23.85 years and mean male age was 26.71 years. Most had completed at least 12 years of formal education. Marital quality was measured by a 32 item Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) comprised of units on dyadic satisfaction, consensus, cohesion, and affectional expression. Time 1 mean correlation of subscales was .43, and Time 2, .36. Dissatisfaction with partner's role performance was measured with an instrument of 18 items developed by Noller and Callan. Alpha coefficients were .69 and .71 for males and females respectively. Multivariate analysis of variance was used to assess marital quality scores by sex and time period and changes in marital quality due to level of postnatal role dissatisfaction by sex and time period. The Bonferronni procedure was used to control the Type 1 error rate for all analyses after the initial analysis of variance. The results revealed that the decline in marital quality reported in the literature may be a reflection of a decline in affectional expression. There was no support for the expectation that females experienced greater declines in marital quality than males, although it is possible that those experiencing greater dissatisfaction may not have provided followup data. There was support for the notion that females' levels of role dissatisfaction account for declines in marital quality; i.e., there was a decline in scores of affectional expression of women only who were also dissatisfied with a partner's role performance. When females perceived partner's performing a fair share in household tasks, marital quality increased. Future research on causation should explore the inequity model and use an objective measure of 1 or both variables. The link between role relations to the extent of change in new mothers' levels of marital quality suggests prenatal counseling on marital roles. Role inequity had no effect on male levels of decline in marital quality. Independent processes may account for these results, but there is a promising direction.^ieng

Trial of relaxation in reducing coronary risk: four year follow up.

On screening 192 men and women aged 35-64 were identified as having two or more of the following risk factors: blood pressure greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg, plasma cholesterol concentration greater than or equal to 6.3 mmol/l (243.6 mg/100 ml), and current smoking habit greater than or equal to 10 cigarettes a day. They were randomly allocated to a group for modification of behaviour or to serve as controls. Both groups were given health education leaflets containing advice to stop smoking, to reduce animal fats in the diet, and on the importance of reducing blood pressure. In addition, the treatment group had group sessions of one hour a week for eight weeks in which they were taught breathing exercises, relaxation, and meditation and about managing stress. It had previously been found that after eight weeks and eight months there was a significantly greater reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressures in the group taught to relax compared with the control group. After four years of follow up these differences in blood pressure were maintained. Plasma cholesterol concentration and the number of cigarettes smoked were lower in the treatment group at eight weeks and eight months but not at the four year follow up. At four years more subjects in the control group reported having had angina and treatment for hypertension and its complications. Incidence of ischaemic heart disease, fatal myocardial infarction, or electrocardiographic evidence of ischaemia was significantly greater in the control group. If the results of this study could be obtained in a larger study the financial and health care implications would be enormous.

Solitary osteochondroma masquerading as a possible malignant lesion.

The object of this presentation is to discuss the characteristics of a few primary bone tumors (osteochondroma versus chondrosarcoma), as presented in the literature, in relation to a specific lesion that the authors encountered. The specific lesion, an unusual osteochondroma arising from the plantar aspect of the first metatarsal, had a few characteristics of its own that are presented. This case report includes the pertinent history and clinical findings of the lesion with associated radiographic laboratory and pathology results that are very essential in determining an accurate differential diagnosis. The surgical discussion and postoperative care is important in discussing the particular characteristics of this tumor and the pattern of its regrowth. Recurrence of a lesion of this type is very rare and, when it does occur, must undergo much scrutiny. This regrowth is the most perplexing characteristic of this tumor and the reason for the lengthy presentation. The final diagnosis remained osteochondroma with benign postoperative ectopic bone formation. It is the authors' opinion that this is a very atypical lesion in the study of bone tumors and is a worthwhile presentation to the literature as such.

Controlled trial of biofeedback-aided behavioural methods in reducing mild hypertension.

Employees of a large industry were screened for the presence of coronary risk factors. A total of 204 employees, aged 35-64 years, with two or more such factors (serum cholesterol concentration greater than or equal to 6.3 mmol/l (243.6 mg/100 ml), blood pressure greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg, and current cigarette consumption greater than or equal to 10 cigarettes a day) were randomly allocated to a biofeedback group receiving training in relaxation and management of stress or a control group. Both groups received simple health education literature. After eight weeks of training, and again eight months later, the biofeedback group showed a significantly greater fall in systolic and diastolic blood pressures than the control group (p less than 0.001). Plasma renin activity and plasma aldosterone concentration were measured in a subsample at entry to the study and again at eight weeks and eight months; both showed a greater reduction in the biofeedback compared with the control group at eight weeks' follow-up. The greater reduction in blood pressure in the subjects in the biofeedback group compared with the control group (11.0 mm Hg systolic and 8.8 mm Hg diastolic), persisting eight months after the training, suggests that relaxation-based behavioural methods might be offered as a first-time treatment to patients with mild hypertension.