ABSTRACT
It is well-established that, when confronted with a decision to be taken under risk, individuals use reference payoff levels as important inputs. The purpose of this paper is to study which reference points characterize decisions in a setting in which there are several plausible reference levels of payoff. We report an experiment, in which we investigate which of four potential reference points: (1) a population average payoff level, (2) the announced expected payoff of peers in a similar decision situation, (3) a historical average level of earnings that others have received in the same task, and (4) an announced anticipated individual payoff level, best describes decisions in a decontextualized risky decision making task. We find heterogeneity among individuals in the reference points they employ. The population average payoff level is the modal reference point, followed by experimenter's stated expectation of a participant's individual earnings, followed in turn by the average earnings of other participants in previous sessions of the same experiment. A sizeable share of individuals show multiple reference points simultaneously. The reference point that best fits the choices of the individual is not affected by a shock to her income.
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of synthetic cannabinoids (SC) on P-wave dispersion (PD) in patients who consume SC. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population included 72 patients who consumed SC and 36 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. The severity of addiction was detected using the addiction profile index (BAPI). The PD was measured by 12-lead ECG obtained upon admission to hospital. Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS v20.0 statistical software package. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients and controls was 26.9 ± 7.0 and 26.3 ± 6.5 years, respectively. Mean duration of SC consumption was 1.7 ± 0.7 years. Mean BAPI score of patients who consumed SC was 12.8 ± 3.4. Patients who consumed SC had a significantly higher PD value than controls (37.7 ± 11.5 vs. 30.6 ± 6.4 ms, p < 0.001). The BAPI score was significantly correlated with PD value (r = 0.675, p < 0.001). In the linear regression model that included PD value, age and heart rate, PD value was significantly and independently correlated with BAPI score (r2 of the model = 0.339; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, patients who consumed SC had significantly higher PD values than controls, and the BAPI score correlated with the PD value. Hence SC consumption could lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease through prolonged PD. We recommend the use of the simple and inexpensive ECG to assess cardiovascular risk in patients who consume SC.
