Efficacy and safety of empagliflozin twice daily versus once daily in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled on metformin: a 16-week, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) with a glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) level ≥7 and ≤10% were randomized to receive empagliflozin 12.5 mg twice daily (n = 219), 25 mg once daily (n = 218), 5 mg twice daily (n = 219) or 10 mg once daily (n = 220), or placebo (n = 107) as add-on to stable-dose metformin immediate release (IR) twice daily for 16 weeks. The primary endpoint was change from baseline in HbA1c at week 16. At week 16, change from baseline in HbA1c with empagliflozin twice daily was non-inferior to empagliflozin once daily and vice versa. The adjusted mean (95% confidence interval) difference in change from baseline in HbA1c with empagliflozin 12.5 mg twice daily versus 25 mg once daily was -0.11% (-0.26, 0.03), and with empagliflozin 5 mg twice daily versus 10 mg once daily it was -0.02% (-0.16, 0.13). All empagliflozin regimens were well tolerated; thus, when used as add-on to metformin IR in patients with T2DM, the therapeutic effect of empagliflozin twice-daily and once-daily regimens can be considered equivalent.

Apelin serum levels are not associated with early atherosclerosis or fat distribution in young subjects with increased risk for type 2 diabetes.

Apelin is proposed to possess protective cardiovascular properties and may furthermore promote favorable effects on glucose metabolism. First data in humans seem to support this hypothesis. Therefore we aimed to assess the meaning of apelin as an early risk indicator in young subjects prone to atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore we examined the association of apelin serum levels with insulin sensitivity/resistance and body fat distribution as probably dependent cardiovascular risk factors. We examined 344 individuals (f/m=216/128, mean age 46±1 years) with an increased risk for type 2 diabetes. Apelin-36 serum levels were measured via ELISA. Endothelial dysfunction and intima media thickness (IMT) were assessed using high resolution ultrasound. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) was measured with an axial T1-weighted fast spin echo technique with a 1.5 T whole-body imager. According to the study population's age, FMD (6.4±0.2%) and IMT (0.56±0.01 mm) were within the expected ranges. Gender or age had no influence on serum apelin levels. When looked at early stages of atherosclerosis, we could not detect a significant correlation between apelin serum levels and FMD or IMT. Blood pressure as well was unaffected by serum apelin levels. Furthermore, neither parameters of insulin sensitivity like insulin sensitivity index (ISI), nor fat distribution like BMI, grade of adiposity, total adipose tissue or VAT were associated with apelin serum levels. We conclude that apelin serum levels do not add further information on the cardiovascular-, or diabetes risk pattern in a diabetes prone population.

Acute, short-term hyperinsulinemia increases olfactory threshold in healthy subjects.

OBJECTIVE: Smell plays an important role in feeding behavior. We therefore tested whether insulin as a postprandial signal is involved in the regulation of olfactory function. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We assessed olfactory thresholds in eight lean subjects (age: 34 ± 7 years, M/F: 5/3) before and during a 2-h hyperinsulinemic (1 mU kg(-1) min(-1)) euglycemic clamp and in eight lean fasted subjects (age: 36 ± 6 years, M/F: 5/3) without insulin infusion at the same time of the day. To define odor thresholds, standardized 'sniffing sticks' were used. RESULTS: Odor thresholds decreased from 7.8 ± 1.2 to 6.2 ± 1.1 during euglycemic hyperinsulinemia (P=0.0173), representing an increase in odor threshold. In the control group, odor thresholds were 8.3 ± 1.6 and did not change after 120 min of fasting (8.9 ± 2.2, P=0.6). CONCLUSIONS: Increased insulin levels lead to a reduced smelling capacity, potentially reducing the pleasantness of eating. Therefore, insulin action in the olfactory bulb may be involved in the process of satiation and may thus be of interest in the pathogenesis of obesity.

Reducing visceral adipose tissue mass is essential for improving endothelial function in type 2 diabetes prone individuals.

OBJECTIVE: In obesity, particularly increased visceral- (VAT), but not total (TAT) adipose tissue mass is a major source of proinflammatory cytokine expression and secretion. VAT, more than TAT, is associated with endothelial dysfunction (ED), which is an accepted risk factor for atherosclerosis. Consequently, we hypothesized that during a lifestyle intervention specifically a decrease in VAT, rather than TAT, is associated with improved ED and vascular adhesion molecules in type 2 diabetes prone subjects. METHODS: Analyses were done in 189 individuals (age: 45.4±0.8 years) at increased risk of type 2 diabetes, who underwent a 9-month lifestyle intervention. ED expressed as flow mediated dilation (FMD) of the brachial artery, sE-selectin, sV-CAM, sI-CAM, TAT and VAT (measured by magnetic resonance tomography) was determined. RESULTS: There was a mean decrease in body weight (-3%, p<0.0001), TAT (-7.6%, p<0.0001) and VAT (-12.5%, p<0.0001), while FMD increased (+9.1%, p=0.04). The change in FMD was not associated with change in body weight (p=0.35) or TAT (p=0.21) but with a decrease in VAT (r=-0.19, p=0.009). In a post hoc analysis, the subjects were divided by the median change in VAT into responders and non-responders. FMD increased only in the responders (from 6.2±0.4% to 8.0±0.5%, p=0.0005) but not in the non-responders (p=0.15). Also sE-selectin significantly decreased only in the responders (from 54±4 ng/ml to 47±3 ng/ml; p=0.03). CONCLUSION: During a lifestyle intervention, not weight loss or decrease in TAT, but decrease in VAT is associated with improved ED in individuals prone to type 2 diabetes. Therefore, primary cardiovascular prevention should focus specifically on reducing VAT rather than body weight alone.

The ENPP1 K121Q polymorphism determines individual susceptibility to the insulin-sensitising effect of lifestyle intervention.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The K121Q (rs1044498) single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the ENPP1 gene has shown association with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in various ethnic populations. We hypothesised that K121Q may predict the success of lifestyle intervention in terms of improvement of insulin sensitivity. METHODS: We genotyped 1,563 participants with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes for K121Q and performed correlational analyses with anthropometric data and variables of insulin sensitivity. For metabolic characterisation, all participants underwent an OGTT. A subgroup of 506 participants additionally underwent a euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp. In 342 participants, metabolic traits and anthropometric data were re-evaluated after a 9 month lifestyle intervention. RESULTS: In the overall cohort, K121Q was not associated with measures of obesity, indices of glucose tolerance during OGTT and insulin sensitivity estimated from the OGTT or derived from a euglycaemic-hyperinsulinaemic clamp after appropriate adjustment. However, K121Q did significantly influence the change in insulin sensitivity during lifestyle intervention after appropriate adjustment (p (additive) = 0.0067, p (dominant) = 0.0027). Carriers of the minor allele had an impaired increase in OGTT-derived insulin sensitivity. A similar trend was obtained for clamp-derived insulin sensitivity, but did not reach significance. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In our population of European ancestry, the ENPP1 SNP K121Q influenced the change in insulin sensitivity during lifestyle intervention. Thus, this SNP may determine susceptibility to environmental changes and could predict the success of lifestyle intervention.

[A rare cause of hypoglycaemia in a patient with type 2 diabetes]. / Seltene Ursache für eine Hypoglykämie bei einem Patienten mit Typ-2-Diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Insulinomas are rare neuroendocrine tumours with an incidence of four cases per million a year. Only few cases of insulinoma in patients with preexisting diabetes mellitus have been reported. CASE: We present a 50-year-old male with type 2 diabetes mellitus who suffered from recurring hypoglycemia. He had gained 20 kilograms of weight in five years. 72-hour fast revealed hypoglycaemia in the presence of inadequately high C-peptide and insulin levels. Magnetic resonance imaging and selective arterial calcium stimulation test confirmed a mass in the body of the pancreas. The tumor was removed surgically. Pathological examination demonstrated a benign insulinoma. Postoperatively, blood glucose levels were within the therapeutic range. The HbA (1c) value was 6.8 % three months after the intervention. CONCLUSION: Clinicians should be alert to insulinoma as a, though rare, differential diagnosis of hypoglycaemia in diabetes, in particular in patients with recurrent, otherwise unexplained hypoglycaemia.

Variation in the FTO gene influences food intake but not energy expenditure.

Polymorphisms in the FTO (fat mass- and obesity-associated) gene are associated with obesity. The mechanisms how genetic variation in this gene influences body weight are unknown. Body weight is determined by energy intake/storage and energy expenditure. In this study, we investigated whether genetic variation in FTO influences energy expenditure or food intake in carefully phenotyped subjects. In 380 German subjects, insulin sensitivity was measured by a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp. Lean body mass and body fat were quantified using the bioimpedance method. Indirect calorimetry was used to estimate the metabolic rate. Food intake was assessed using food diaries (mean 11+/-1 d) in 151 subjects participating in a lifestyle intervention program to prevent diabetes. All subjects were genotyped for the FTO single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs8050136. The risk allele of SNP rs8050136 was associated with higher body fat-related parameters (all p< or =0.04, additive inheritance model). Energy expenditure was not affected by the SNP. However, the risk allele of rs8050136 was significantly associated with higher energy intake (p=0.01, dominant inheritance model) during dietary restriction. Our data suggest that the increased body weight in carriers of the risk allele of FTO SNP rs8050136 is a consequence of increased food intake, but not of impaired energy expenditure.

High cardiorespiratory fitness is an independent predictor of the reduction in liver fat during a lifestyle intervention in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

OBJECTIVE: Lifestyle intervention with diet modification and increase in physical activity is effective for reducing hepatic steatosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, for a similar weight loss, there is a large variability in the change in liver fat. We hypothesised that cardiorespiratory fitness may predict the response to the intervention. DESIGN: Longitudinal study with increase in physical activity and diet modification. SETTING: University teaching hospital. PATIENTS: 50 adults with NAFLD and 120 controls at risk for metabolic diseases. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total-, subcutaneous abdominal- and visceral adipose tissue by magnetic resonance tomography, liver fat by 1HMR spectroscopy and cardiorespiratory fitness (VO(2,max)) by a maximal cycle exercise test at baseline and after 9 months of follow-up. RESULTS: In all subjects total-, subcutaneous abdominal- and visceral adipose tissue decreased and fitness increased (all p<0.0001) during the intervention. The most pronounced changes were found for liver fat (-31%, p<0.0001). Among the parameters predicting the change in liver fat, fitness at baseline emerged as the strongest factor, independently of total- and visceral adipose tissue as well as exercise intensity (p = 0.005). In the group of subjects with NAFLD at baseline, a resolution of NAFLD was found in 20 individuals. For 1 standard deviation increase in VO(2,max) at baseline the odds ratio for resolution of NAFLD was 2.79 (95% confidence interval, 1.43-6.33). CONCLUSIONS: Cardiorespiratory fitness, independently of total adiposity, body fat distribution and exercise intensity, determines liver fat content in humans, suggesting that fitness and liver fat are causally related to each other. Moreover, measurement of fitness at baseline predicts the effectiveness of a lifestyle intervention in reducing hepatic steatosis in patients with NAFLD.

Symptomatic hypoglycemia during imatinib mesylate in a non-diabetic female patient with gastrointestinal stromal tumor.

Imatinib mesylate is a selective competitive inhibitor of the bcr-abl tyrosine kinase and c-KIT. Other kinases, such as phosphatidylinositol- 3'-kinase (PI-3K) involved in insulin signaling, have also been shown to be indirectly affected by imatinib. A recent report described a lowering of blood glucose levels in Type 2 diabetic patients treated with imatinib resulting in a reduction of oral antidiabetic medication or insulin dosage. We present a female non-diabetic patient with a resected gastrointestinal stromal tumor with an increased insulin response following an oral glucose challenge and hypoglycemic episodes following imatinib therapy. In addition to a rise in insulin sensitivity, the patient showed inappropriately high insulin secretion rates in relation to the actual blood glucose concentrations during and after the completion of imatinib treatment. The symptoms suggestive of hypoglycemia such as dizziness and shivering formerly observed in patients treated with imatinib may be related to hypoglycemic glucose concentrations. Physicians treating patients with imatinib should be aware of the possible occurrence of hypoglycemic episodes in non-diabetic patients.

Role of AMP-activated protein kinase gamma 3 genetic variability in glucose and lipid metabolism in non-diabetic whites.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a heterotrimeric enzyme that acts as an intracellular fuel sensor, directing multiple metabolic pathways in a catabolic direction in times of nutrient shortage. In humans, three different gamma-subunits (gamma(1), gamma(2), gamma(3)) have been identified as AMPK regulators. The AMPKgamma3 (protein kinase, AMP-activated, gamma 3 non-catalytic subunit, PRKAG3) isoform plays a role in gene regulation in glucose/lipid metabolism and skeletal muscle glycogen content. We investigated whether PRKAG3, in addition to being expressed in skeletal muscle, is also expressed in human liver. We also investigated whether genetic variance in PRKAG3 is associated with glucose and/or lipid metabolism in non-diabetic whites. MATERIALS AND METHODS: After sequencing a screening cohort (n = 50) in the PRKAG3 locus, we genotyped 1061 participants for frequently found single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Association analyses between genotypes/haplotypes and metabolic traits were carried out. RESULTS: We detected PRKAG3 expression in human liver and skeletal muscle. Two SNPs (rs692243, rs6436094) with minor allele frequencies of 0.16 and 0.26 respectively and in moderate linkage disequilibrium (D' = 0.92; r (2) = 0.47) were found. rs692243 (C/G) confers a Pro71Ala mutation, while rs6436094 (A/G) is located in the 3' untranslated region. No associations with prediabetic traits such as body fat distribution, insulin resistance or insulin secretion were found (p > 0.15 for all). However, the minor alleles of both SNPs were significantly associated with higher serum LDL-cholesterol and apolipoprotein (Apo) B-100 levels (rs692243: CG:LDL 4.3%, ApoB-100 3.4%; GG:LDL 7.6%, ApoB-100 5.4%; p = 0.008 and p = 0.01 respectively; rs6436094: AG:LDL 3.3%, ApoB-100 1.7%; GG:LDL 11.3%, ApoB-100 11.1%; p = 0.009 and p = 0.05 respectively; dominant model). The GG/GG diplotype homozygous for both minor SNP alleles displayed the highest LDL-cholesterol among all frequent diplotypes (p = 0.059). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: While genetic variability in PRKAG3 does not seem to have a major effect on glucose metabolism, it may play an important role in lipoprotein metabolism in humans.

Gender specific correlations of adrenal gland size and body fat distribution: a whole body MRI study.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the gender specific correlations of stress related tissues [adrenal gland volume (AV), visceral fat] and alimentary dependent fat compartments with cortisol concentrations in healthy male and female subjects. METHODS: Fourteen men and 13 women were examined. Fat compartments [whole body fat, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT)] were determined using whole body MRI. Adrenal gland volume was assessed by a 3D MR data set. The salivary cortisol was determined at 9 AM and 4 PM. RESULTS: Men had significantly more visceral fat and less subcutaneous fat than women. Adrenal gland size correlated significantly with the visceral and subcutaneous fat in women (r=0.7, p=0.008), but not in men (r=0.2, p=0.4). There was a negative correlation between the decrease of cortisol between 9 AM and 4 PM with VAT (r=-0.451, p=0.027) in the whole group. DISCUSSION: The high correlation between the adrenal gland volume and VAT in women underlines the link between hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, stress, and circadian cortisol rhythm, respectively, and an increased abdominal fat volume. The lack of correlation between visceral fat and adrenal volume in men points to an additional influence of sex hormones.

Impaired glucagon-like peptide-1-induced insulin secretion in carriers of transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) gene polymorphisms.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Polymorphisms in the transcription factor 7-like 2 (TCF7L2) gene are associated with type 2 diabetes and reduced insulin secretion. The transcription factor TCF7L2 is an essential factor for glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion from intestinal L cells. We studied whether a defect in the enteroinsular axis contributes to impaired insulin secretion in carriers of TCF7L2 polymorphisms. METHODS: We genotyped 1,110 non-diabetic German participants for five single nucleotide polymorphisms in TCF7L2. All participants underwent an OGTT; GLP-1 secretion was measured in 155 participants. In 210 participants, an IVGTT combined with a hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp was performed. In another 160 participants from the Netherlands and 73 from Germany, a hyperglycaemic clamp (10 mmol/l) was performed. In 73 German participants this clamp was combined with a GLP-1 infusion and an arginine bolus. RESULTS: The OGTT data confirmed that variants in TCF7L2 are associated with reduced insulin secretion. In contrast, insulin secretion induced by an i.v. glucose challenge in the IVGTT and hyperglycaemic clamp was not different between the genotypes. GLP-1 concentrations during the OGTT were not influenced by the TCF7L2 variants. However, GLP-1-infusion combined with a hyperglycaemic clamp showed a significant reduction in GLP-1-induced insulin secretion in carriers of the risk allele in two variants (rs7903146, rs12255372, p < 0.02). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Variants of TCF7L2 specifically impair GLP-1-induced insulin secretion. This seems to be rather the result of a functional defect in the GLP-1 signalling in beta cells than a reduction in GLP-1 secretion. This defect might explain the impaired insulin secretion in carriers of the risk alleles and confers the increased risk of type 2 diabetes.

[Gene-environment interactions in the pathogenesis and prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus]. / Gen-Umwelt-Interaktion in Pathogenese und Prävention des Diabetes mellitus Typ 2.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a chronic progressive disease characterized by impaired insulin secretion of the beta cell and impaired insulin sensitivity of different tissues. The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus is increasing worldwide, and the disease has reached epidemic proportions. Lifestyle intervention programs are able to delay or possibly prevent the manifestation of type 2 diabetes mellitus. This review summarizes the genetic and environmental factors which influence the risk for type 2 diabetes and their interactions, and determine the success of prevention programs.

Beta cell function, insulin resistance and plasma adiponectin concentrations are predictors for the change of postprandial glucose in non-diabetic subjects at risk for type 2 diabetes.

Insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, and low adiponectin levels have been shown to be predictors for type 2 diabetes. However, it is not yet clear whether these associations (1) are independent of changes in body weight, or (2) are valid for changes in glucose tolerance in the prediabetic state. Sixty-two non-diabetics (50 with normal glucose tolerance) aged 41 +/- 11 years, BMI 30.5 +/- 5.3 kg/m2 (mean +/- SD) were studied twice with a standard oral glucose tolerance test (oGTT, mean follow-up time 3.0 +/- 1.8 years (mean +/- SD) [range 0.5-6.5 years]). Insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion were estimated from oGTT using validated indices. Two-hour blood glucose during oGTT deteriorated over time (baseline 2 h glucose 6.32 +/- 0.21 VS. follow-up 2 h glucose 7.14 +/- 0.22 mM, p < 0.001) while the percentage body fat did not change (32.7 +/- 1.2 VS. 32.6 +/- 1.2%, p = 0.46). Follow-up 2 h blood glucose was predicted by adiponectin (p = 0.01), baseline insulin sensitivity (p = 0.02) and baseline insulin secretion relative to insulin sensitivity (p = 0.03) independent of sex, age, baseline 2 h blood glucose or change in percentage body fat. Our results suggest that low adiponectin levels, insulin resistance and low beta cell function predict the continuous deterioration of glucose tolerance in early prediabetic states, independent of changes in adiposity. Therefore, the early influence of these parameters should be the subject of future prevention programs to prevent deterioration of glucose tolerance.

Association of serum phosphate levels with glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion in non-diabetic subjects.

BACKGROUND: Hypophosphatemia is associated with impaired glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in primary hyperparathyroidism. However, little is known about the association between serum phosphate and glucose metabolism in healthy subjects. METHODS: We measured fasting serum phosphate levels (SP, normal range 2.6-4.5 mg/dl) and serum calcium (S-Ca, normal range 2.1-2.6 mmol/l) in 881 non-diabetic subjects (341 male/540 female, age: 38+/-1 years, body mass index 25.9+/-0.2 kg/m(2) (mean+/-standard error of the mean). An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) with determination of glucose and insulin every 30 min was performed in all subjects. Insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity (IS) were estimated from the OGTT using validated indices. Furthermore, we tested whether serum phosphate predicts glucose tolerance in 115 subjects during a lifestyle intervention program (LIP). RESULTS: Serum phosphate was negatively correlated with 2-h blood glucose levels independent of age, gender and percent body fat (r=-0.13, P<0.0001). This association remained significant after additional adjustment for S-Ca, creatinine and parathyroid hormone. Serum phosphate was positively correlated with IS (r=0.10, P=0.0006), but not with insulin secretion. This was independent of age, gender, percent body fat, S-Ca and serum creatinine. In the subjects taking part in the LIP low serum phosphate levels at baseline were associated with higher postprandial glucose levels. CONCLUSIONS: In non-diabetic subjects, low serum phosphate levels are associated with high 2-h blood glucose levels and reduced IS. Whether low serum phosphate levels are a cause or a consequence of low IS and impairment of glucose tolerance needs to be tested in further studies.

Age and gender related effects on adipose tissue compartments of subjects with increased risk for type 2 diabetes: a whole body MRI/MRS study.

Quantitative measurement of adipose tissue (AT) compartments in the entire body and of lipids in muscle and liver cells by means of MRI and MRS. Assessment of age and gender related differences in AT compartments and determination of cross-correlations between AT compartments in a heterogeneous cohort at increased risk for metabolic diseases. One hundred and fifty healthy volunteers with increased risk to type 2 diabetes were examined. T1-weighted MRI was applied for whole-body adipose tissue quantification. Adipose tissue compartments were subdivided in lower extremities, trunk (abdominal subcutaneous (SCAT) and visceral (VAT) adipose tissue), and upper extremities. Intrahepatocellular lipids (IHCL) and intramyocellular lipids (IMCL) in tibialis anterior and soleus muscle were determined by volume selective MRS. Females are characterized by lower %VAT (2.8+/-1.3% vs. 4.6+/-1.4%, p<0.001) and higher %SCAT (14.7+/-3.9% vs. 9.3+/-2.9%, p<0.001). There is a strong correlation between %VAT and age (r=0.64/0.60 for females/males), whereas %SCAT remained virtually unchanged in males (r=-0.09) and was only slightly increaseding in females (r =0.30, p<0.01). For IHCL, age related differences were observed in females with significantly increased IHCL in the older women, but not in males. IMCL contents in both muscles were found almost independent of age in both, males and females. Furthermore, VAT and IHCL show significant correlations in both groups. Assessed age and gender related differences, especially the age related significant increase of VAT and IHCL, as well as cross-correlations between different lipid compartments might contribute to a better understanding of the lipid metabolism under normal and pathologic metabolic conditions in humans.

Genetic determinants of insulin action in polycystic ovary syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: Insulin resistance is associated with both type 2 diabetes (T2 D) and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). There is an association of T2 D with several polymorphisms in candidate genes related to insulin resistance. However, there is limited information about the association of these polymorphisms with PCOS. METHODS: 57 non-diabetic women with PCOS and a control group of 567 healthy non-diabetic women underwent an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). They were genotyped for the polymorphisms Gly972Arg in IRS-1, Gly1057Asp in IRS-2, SNP 43, 44, and 45 in CAPN10, Pro12Ala in PPAR(gamma)2, C-512 T in FOXC2, and T45 G in adiponectin. RESULTS: Women with PCOS had higher 2-h blood glucose levels (6.5 +/- 0.2 vs. 6.0 +/- 0.06 mmol/l, p = 0.03) compared to control women, higher fasting insulin (79 +/- 7 vs. 53 +/- 2 pmol/l, p = 0.02), and a lower insulin sensitivity estimated from the OGTT (12.4 +/- 1.1 vs. 19.1 +/- 0.5 U, p = 0.0001). More homozygous G allele carriers of the T45 G polymorphism in the adiponectin gene were found in women with PCOS compared to controls (13.2 % vs. 2.6 %, p = 0.008). In women with PCOS, G-allele carriers had lower fasting insulin levels than TT carriers (61 +/- 9 vs. 88 +/- 10, p = 0.02) in contrast to controls (p = 0.03 for interaction genotype x PCOS). The other polymorphisms were distributed equally among women with PCOS and controls (all p > 0.5). SUMMARY: We found a higher prevalence of the T45 G polymorphism in the adiponectin gene in women with PCOS compared to controls. This was not associated with a more insulin resistant phenotype in PCOS, however. Other frequent polymorphisms in genes related to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes showed no association with PCOS.

Elevated serum GGT concentrations predict reduced insulin sensitivity and increased intrahepatic lipids.

Elevated serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) concentrations have been related to features of the metabolic syndrome as well as increased risk of cardiovascular and liver disease. More recently, elevated GGT levels were shown to predict development of type 2 diabetes in a longitudinal study from Korea. The aim of the present study was to test the hypothesis that serum GGT is associated with glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and beta-cell function in a healthy, non-diabetic Caucasian population from the Tübingen family study. Insulin sensitivity was estimated by oGTT (n = 850) or measured by hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp (n = 245), respectively. A subgroup (n = 70) underwent additional determination of intrahepatic lipid content using 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Serum GGT was positively correlated with two-hour glucose during oGTT (r = 0.15, p < 0.0001) and negatively correlated with insulin sensitivity from oGTT (r = -0.31, p < 0.0001) and clamp (r = -0.27, p < 0.0001). The relationship between GGT and insulin sensitivity remained significant after adjusting for sex, age, BMI, and AST using multivariate regression analysis. Inclusion of serum triglyceride levels as a parameter of lipid metabolism kept the relationship significant in the oGTT group (p < 0.0001), but not in the smaller clamp group (p = 0.11). Additionally, serum GGT was positively correlated with hepatic lipid content (r = 0.49, p < 0.001) independent of sex, age, BMI, AST or serum triglycerides. There was no significant correlation between GGT and the index for beta-cell function after adjusting for age, sex, BMI and insulin sensitivity (p = 0.74). In conclusion, elevated serum GGT levels predict glucose intolerance probably via insulin resistance rather than beta-cell dysfunction. This may be primarily related to hepatic insulin resistance and increased intrahepatic lipids. The association observed between elevated hepatic lipids and reduced insulin sensitivity might explain the increased diabetes risk observed in subjects with elevated serum GGT concentrations. In the absence of overt liver disease, elevated serum GGT concentrations may point the clinician to incipient disturbances in the glucose metabolism.

Muscle type dependent increase in intramyocellular lipids during prolonged fasting of human subjects: a proton MRS study.

The amount of intramyocellular lipids in skeletal muscle was assessed by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy during a voluntary fasting period of 120 h in four healthy lean volunteers. The aim of the study was to determine whether muscular lipid uptake in the presence of high plasma lipid levels, or lipid oxidation due to lacking glycogen as a source of energy in musculature, are the dominant effects on intramyocellular lipid levels under fasting conditions in various muscle types. Intramyocellular lipids were quantified in the tibialis anterior (mixed type I and type II fibers, predominantly type II) and the soleus muscle (predominantly type I fibers) before and after 24 h, 72 h, and 120 h of fasting. An extreme increase in intramyocellular lipids to levels of 369 % (median) was found in the tibialis anterior muscle compared to baseline value (intramyocellular lipid level prior to fasting, set to 100 %; p = 0.02). The soleus muscle with clearly higher baseline content of intramyocellular lipids (2 - 4-fold compared to tibialis anterior) revealed slightly delayed and less pronounced uptake of intramyocellular lipids during fasting to 152 % (median) after 120 h (p = 0.02). The absolute increment in intramyocellular lipids (in terms of ratios between lipid and creatine signals) was also higher in tibialis anterior than in soleus (not statistically significant). These findings indicate augmentation of the intramyocellular lipid pool during long-term elevation of plasma FFA in the presence of low plasma insulin concentrations in both muscles investigated. The rate of muscular lipid oxidation during fasting is clearly lower than the increased uptake of FFA by myocytes.