Exacerbation of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity by endothelin receptor antagonism.

BACKGROUND: Endothelin is a potent vasoconstrictor that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity. Endothelin antagonists may reduce the renal hemodynamic abnormalities following radiocontrast administration. METHODS: One hundred fifty-eight patients with chronic renal insufficiency [mean serum creatinine +/- SD = 2.7 +/- 1.0 mg/dL (242. 3 to +/- 92.8 micromol/L)] and undergoing cardiac angiography were randomized to receive either a mixed endothelin A and B receptor antagonist, SB 290670, or placebo. All patients received intravenous hydration with 0.45% saline before and after radiocontrast administration. Serum creatinine concentrations were measured at baseline, 24 hours, 48 hours, and 3 to 5 days after radiocontrast administration. The primary end point was the mean change in serum creatinine concentration from baseline at 48 hours; the secondary end point was the incidence of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity, defined as an increase in serum creatinine of > or =0.5 mg/dL (44 micromol/L) or > or = 25% from baseline within 48 hours of radiocontrast administration. RESULTS: The mean increase in serum creatinine 48 hours after angiography was higher in the SB 209670 group [0.7 +/- 0. 7 mg/dL (63.5 +/- 58.6 micromol/L)] than in the placebo group [0.4 +/- 0.6 mg/dL (33.6 +/- 55.1 micromol/L), P = 0.002]. The incidence of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity was also higher in the SB 209670 group (56%) compared with placebo (29%, P = 0.002). This negative effect of SB 209670 was apparent in both diabetic and nondiabetic patients. Adverse effects, especially hypotension or decreased blood pressure, were more common in the SB 209670 group. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with chronic renal insufficiency who were undergoing cardiac angiography, endothelin receptor antagonism with SB 209670 and intravenous hydration exacerbate radiocontrast nephrotoxicity compared with hydration alone.

Prevalence and chromosomal map location of Staphylococcus aureus adhesin genes.

Using genomic DNA from 25 unrelated strains and probes specific for each gene, we assessed the prevalence of the Staphylococcus aureus (Sa) adhesion genes cna, fnbA, fnbB, fib, clfA, fbpA, ebpS and map. All 25 strains encoded fib, clfA, ebpS, map and at least one of the fnb genes. fbpA and coa appeared to be allelic variants of the same gene with the fbpA variant being present in only four of 25 isolates. cna was present in 10 of 25 strains. Using Southern blot analysis of SmaI-digested genomic DNA resolved by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, the adhesion genes were mapped to SmaI fragments A (ebpS), B (fib and clfA), C (fnbA/fnbB), E (fbpA), F (map) and G (cna). Despite variations in SmaI restriction profiles, co-localization of adhesin genes with genes known to map to specific SmaI fragments in the Sa 8325-4 chromosome strains suggests that the chromosomal location of each adhesin gene is conserved.

Comparative evaluation of use of cna, fnbA, fnbB, and hlb for genomic fingerprinting in the epidemiological typing of Staphylococcus aureus.

We used a genomic fingerprinting protocol to characterize 59 Staphylococcus aureus strains and a single S. intermedius isolate, all of which were previously typed by 13 different methods (F. C. Tenover et al., J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:407-415, 1994). These 60 strains were divided into three groups of 20 strains each, with each group including internal controls. Two of the three groups (groups SB and SC) included 29 strains from four relatively well-defined outbreaks. The epidemiological relationships of the strains in the third group (group SA) were unclear. Fingerprints were established by Southern blotting with HaeIII-digested genomic DNA and a probe mixture consisting of DNA fragments corresponding to the S. aureus collagen adhesin (cna), fibronectin-binding protein (fnbA and fnbB), and beta-toxin (hlb) genes. An unambiguous fingerprint was obtained for all S. aureus isolates. No hybridization signal was observed with S. intermedius. Twenty-seven of the 29 related strains in the SB and SC groups were correctly identified as belonging to one of the four epidemiologically related groups. Our protocol was less successful with respect to the exclusion of unrelated strains. Specifically, only 6 of 11 unrelated strains in the SB and SC groups had a fingerprint that was distinct by comparison to the fingerprints of the outbreak strains. Nevertheless, our protocol was relatively accurate by comparison to the accuracies of the other methods and was one of only six methods that accurately identified all of the repetitive strains included as internal controls.

Mechanisms of heart rate and arterial blood pressure control: implications for the pathophysiology of neurocardiogenic syncope.

Neurocardiogenic syncope is a general term that describes syncope resulting from altered autonomic activity, as manifested by abnormal regulation of peripheral vascular resistance and heart rate. Although there has been great interest in the contribution of heart rate to this form of syncope, the peripheral circulation plays the dominant role in the induction of neurocardiogenic syncope in most patients. We review in this brief article the physiology of cardiovascular reflexes, which are important for short-term arterial pressure control, and their potential contribution to the pathophysiology of neurocardiogenic syncope. This type of syncope represents a profound failure of the normal mechanisms for short-term regulation of arterial pressure. Any therapeutic strategies for the management of neurocardiogenic syncope must deal with alterations in vascular control, which contribute to its pathogenesis.

Reflexes mediated by cardiac sympathetic afferents during myocardial ischaemia: role of adenosine.

1. Myocardial ischaemia and infarction activate vagal and sympathetic sensory endings in the ischaemic myocardium, resulting in powerful reflex effects. The vagal afferents are either mechano- or chemosensitive, whereas sympathetic afferents may be mechano-, chemosensitive or both. 2. Activation of vagal afferents results in sympathoinhibitory, cardioinhibitory, vasodepressor responses. Cardiac sympathetic afferents activated during myocardial ischaemia mediate sympathoexcitatory, vasoconstrictor cardioaccelerator responses. 3. The focus of the present review is on the activation of sympathetic afferents by myocardial ischaemia and on the resulting reflex responses that they mediate. 4. These endings are more likely to be activated as the degree of ischaemia progresses from subendocardial towards transmural. They are evenly distributed between the anterior and inferoposterior wall. Although it has been suggested that these endings are activated by bradykinin, recent evidence indicates that they are activated by adenosine released from the ischaemic myocardium. Results from our laboratory indicate that this effect is due to the activation of adenosine A1, but not adenosine A2 receptors. 5. Activation of ventricular vagal and sympathetic afferent fibres during myocardial ischaemia in humans is responsible for the autonomic changes observed and, in the case of the sympathetic afferents, for the sensation of angina pectoris.

Responses of plasma norepinephrine and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to dynamic exercise in patients with congestive heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Neurohormonal activation is present and neurohormonal responses to dynamic exercise are altered in congestive heart failure (CHF). Responses of plasma norepinephrine in various degrees of heart failure have been investigated, but the responses of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system have not been studied in relation to the severity of CHF. The aim of this study was to determine if the responses of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to exercise are augmented according to the severity of CHF. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ventilatory and neurohormonal responses were assessed in 38 patients with CHF (New York Heart Association class: I, 13 patients; II, 14 patients; III, 11 patients) and 11 normal subjects during symptom-limited cardiopulmonary exercise testing. Plasma norepinephrine, renin activity, angiotensin II, and aldosterone were measured at rest and at peak exercise. The increments in neurohormones were divided by peak oxygen consumption, and these ratios (norepinephrine exercise ratio, plasma renin activity-exercise ratio, angiotensin II-exercise ratio, aldosterone-exercise ratio) were compared among groups. Peak oxygen consumption and anaerobic threshold decreased progressively with the severity of CHF. Neurohormonal profiles at rest showed that plasma norepinephrine levels were significantly higher, and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system was augmented only in patients with class III CHF. Neurohormones increased during exercise both in patients with CHF and in normal subjects, but patients with class III CHF had significantly higher plasma renin activity (10.11 +/- 2.32 ng/mL/h), angiotensin II (73.9 +/- 14.2 pg/mL), and aldosterone (265.2 +/- 61.1 pg/mL) than did normal subjects. Plasma renin activity-exercise ratio, angiotensin II-exercise ratio, and aldosterone-exercise ratio in patients with class III CHF were significantly higher compared to normal subjects. This augmentation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system was not observed in class I or II patients. Peak plasma norepinephrine levels were not different among normal subjects and subgroups of CHF patients, but the norepinephrine-exercise ratio was significantly higher in classes II and III CHF compared to normal subjects. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that neurohormonal excitation during exercise increases along with the severity of CHF when normalized for peak exercise level.

Enalaprilat augments arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in patients with heart failure.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to determine the effects of enalaprilat on reflex control of sympathetic nerve activity. BACKGROUND: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors decrease mortality in patients with congestive heart failure. Their efficacy appears to be related importantly to antiadrenergic effects, the mechanism for which has not been determined. Because baroreflexes tonically inhibit sympathetic outflow, and baroreflexes are blunted in heart failure, we hypothesized that these agents reduce sympathetic activity by augmenting baroreflexes. METHODS: We assessed baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity and heart rate in patients with congestive heart failure and in control subjects before and after enalaprilat (0.02 mg/kg body weight intravenously). Arterial baroreflexes were perturbed by bolus administration of sodium nitroprusside and phenylephrine. Cardiopulmonary baroreflexes were perturbed by lower body negative pressure and head-down tilt. Muscle sympathetic nerve activity was recorded by microneurography. RESULTS: Enalaprilat decreased systolic blood pressure in patients with heart failure and control subjects. Sympathetic nerve activity increased in control subjects but decreased in patients with heart failure after enalaprilat despite reductions in central venous pressure in this group. Baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity was unchanged by enalaprilat in control subjects. In patients with heart failure, both arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity was enhanced by enalaprilat. Baroreflex control of heart rate was unchanged by enalaprilat in either group. CONCLUSIONS: Enalaprilat augments both arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic activity in heart failure. These augmented inhibitory influences are associated with a reduction in sympathetic outflow and may contribute to the beneficial effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in heart failure.

Treatment with enalapril fails to prevent impaired cardiopulmonary baroreflex control in dogs with left ventricular dysfunction.

That the cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity is impaired in dogs with left ventricular (LV) dysfunction has been shown previously. This study tested the hypothesis that treatment with the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor enalapril prevents or delays the development of abnormalities of cardiopulmonary baroreflexes in dogs with LV dysfunction. Serial changes in LV volumes and neurohumoral profiles (plasma norepinephrine and renin activity) were assessed in conscious dogs with progressive LV dysfunction due to rapid ventricular pacing. Enalapril 5 mg orally twice daily was administered from days 4 to 12 of pacing. Cardiopulmonary baroreflexes were assessed in enalapril-treated paced dogs (n = 8) and untreated paced dogs (n = 8) by recording changes in renal nerve activity and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure during volume infusion in anesthetized sinoaortic denervated dogs on day 12 of rapid pacing. There was no difference in LV volume in the two groups. Neurohumoral factors were similar in both groups except for the expected high plasma renin activity in enalapril-treated dogs. Hemodynamic parameters also were comparable in the two groups. Cardiopulmonary baroreflex sensitivity for enalapril-treated dogs was not different from that of untreated paced dogs, and baroreflex gain in both groups was significantly lower than for the nonpaced control dogs (P < .05). Despite adequate converting enzyme blockade, treatment with enalapril failed to prevent the development of attenuated cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in dogs with developing LV dysfunction.

Cardiorespiratory reflex control in rats with left ventricular dysfunction.

Patients with heart failure exhibit a neurohumoral excitatory state and abnormal baroreflex control of the cardiovascular system. We determined whether arterial baroreflexes are impaired during left ventricular dysfunction (LVD) caused by chronic myocardial infarction in the absence of congestive heart failure and whether abnormal central mechanisms contribute to this impairment. Baroreceptors were stimulated in anesthetized rats with and without LVD by increasing arterial pressure with phenylephrine. Lumbar sympathetic nerve and phrenic nerve activity as well as heart rate were recorded. Rats were divided into different groups based on infarct size. Rats with moderate LVD showed impaired baroreflex control of sympathetic, ventilatory, and heart rate responses. Baroreflex gains were inversely related to the size of the infarct. The central gain for sympathetic nerve activity, obtained by using electrical stimulation of the aortic depressor nerve, also was impaired. Baroreflex control of the cardiorespiratory system is thus impaired in rats with moderate LVD in the absence of congestive heart failure. The attenuated baroreflexes are likely due to abnormal afferent mechanisms, although central mechanisms contribute to the impaired barosympathetic reflex.

Naloxone does not prevent vasovagal syncope during simulated orthostasis in humans.

The mechanism of vasovagal syncope during orthostasis in humans is unknown. Opioid receptors have been implicated in the vasovagal-like responses to hemorrhagic hypotension in conscious animals. We sought to determine if opioid receptor blockade with naloxone (mu receptor antagonist) would prevent or delay the onset of vasovagal syncope in humans. Three protocols were performed in which heart rate, arterial pressure, sympathetic nerve activity, thoracic impedance and forearm vascular resistance were measured during stepwise steady-state increments of lower body negative pressure (LBNP) in nine healthy volunteers. In protocol 1, duplicate trials of LBNP to syncope or -60 mmHg were performed with a 30-45 minute rest period separating the trials. No significant differences in any physiologic responses or cumulative stress tolerance were found. In protocol 2, graded LBNP was repeated after administration of saline or naloxone (0.1 mg/kg) in six subjects in which vasovagal syncope occurred prior to -60 mmHg LBNP. The peak increase of sympathetic nerve activity during LBNP was augmented after naloxone (P = 0.02), but the occurrence of vasovagal syncope was not prevented nor was the cumulative stress tolerated affected (P = 0.42). The heart rate and arterial pressure responses to LBNP were not affected by naloxone. Similarly, in protocol 3, naloxone given just prior to the onset of pre-syncopal symptoms did not alter the physiologic response or the occurrence of vasovagal syncope. These data show that naloxone does not prevent or delay the onset of vasovagal syncope in humans which suggests that mu opioid receptors do not mediate the vasovagal response.

Abnormalities of baroreflex control in heart failure.

This brief review summarizes abnormalities of arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflex control of heart rate and sympathetic nerve activity. The potential role of these abnormalities in the development of the neurohumoral excitatory state associated with heart failure is discussed. Major emphasis is placed on the identification of important issues still to be investigated in this area. The potential importance of altered cardiovascular reflexes in the context of the interaction of the patient with heart failure and environmental stresses is discussed. The use of the canine rapid ventricular pacing model of biventricular failure in the investigation of abnormalities of baroreflexes in heart failure is emphasized. Insights obtained from this model should be extended to human investigations.

Neural control mechanisms and vasovagal syncope.

Patients with recurrent unexplained syncope may have cardioinhibitory and vasodepressor responses provokable with head-up tilt with or without exogenous beta-adrenergic stimulation. Although these responses are believed to be neurally mediated, the neural mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Numerous studies have documented peripheral vasodilation, hypotension, and bradycardia at the time of syncope and several case reports have shown sudden withdrawal of vasoconstrictor sympathetic neural outflow to skeletal muscle in human subjects. In cats and rats, a similar response can be provoked with hemorrhage and is prevented by interruption of cardiac vagal C-fiber afferents. In dogs, however, section of these fibers does not prevent the development of a vasodepressor response. The provocation of vasodepressor syncope during nitroprusside infusion in a heart transplant recipient with presumed ventricular denervation also suggests that cardiac afferent nerves may not be required for the development of vasodepressor responses in humans. Other potential mechanisms include release of endogenous opioids or nitric oxide that may inhibit sympathetic nerve firing, and primary central nervous system activation (as in partial seizures) that triggers cardioinhibitory and vasodepressor responses. This article reviews our current understanding of the mechanisms involved in the development of neurally mediated syncope.

Activation of cardiac sympathetic afferents: effects of exogenous adenosine and adenosine analogues.

Adenosine is released during myocardial ischemia and can cause angina-like chest pain when given by intracoronary administration. We tested the hypothesis that intracoronary adenosine activates cardiac sympathetic afferent fibers and results in reflex sympathoexcitation. In dogs with sinoaortic denervation and vagotomy, we administered 2 mg of adenosine into the left anterior descending artery over 2 min. Before dipyridamole infusion, intracoronary adenosine resulted in no change in blood pressure or renal sympathetic nerve activity. After dipyridamole infusion, which blocks adenosine uptake, intracoronary adenosine resulted in a peak increase in sympathetic activity of 34 +/- 7%. We also investigated the adenosine-receptor subtype responsible for this sympathoexcitatory response. We found that the adenosine1 agonist N6-cyclopentyladenosine elicited a dose-dependent sympathoexcitatory response similar to adenosine but that the adenosine2 agonist 5'-(N-cyclopropyl)carboxamidoadenosine failed to elicit a sympathoexcitatory response. We conclude that adenosine activates cardiac sympathetic afferent fibers and leads to a sympathoexcitatory response due to activation of adenosine1 receptors.

Reflex sympathoexcitation by cardiac sympathetic afferents during myocardial ischemia. Role of adenosine.

BACKGROUND: Stimulation of cardiac sympathetic afferents during myocardial ischemia has been attributed to bradykinin released from the ischemic myocardium. Recent data from human studies suggest that adenosine may serve as this mediator. Our experiments were done to determine whether reflex sympathoexcitatory responses to activation of cardiac sympathetic afferents during myocardial ischemia could be inhibited by blockade of adenosine receptors and augmented by increasing the local concentrations of adenosine in the ischemic myocardium. METHODS AND RESULTS: Experiments were done in 29 anesthetized dogs with bilateral vagotomy and carotid sinus denervation. Activation of cardiac sympathetic afferent fibers was induced by occlusion of the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) combined with rapid atrial pacing (pacing rate, 200 beats per minute). LAD occlusion plus rapid atrial pacing increased renal sympathetic nerve activity by 20 +/- 4% before but by only 7 +/- 1% after administration of aminophylline (100 mg i.v.), an adenosine receptor antagonist. In contrast, LAD occlusion during rapid atrial pacing increased renal sympathetic nerve activity by 18 +/- 8% before and 61 +/- 15% after treatment with dipyridamole (0.57 mg/kg i.v.), an inhibitor of adenosine reuptake. In a separate group of dogs, LAD occlusion during rapid atrial pacing increased renal sympathetic nerve activity similarly before and after sham treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that adenosine released during myocardial ischemia activates cardiac sympathetic afferents to cause reflex sympathoexcitation. These findings are consistent with observations made in humans that suggest that adenosine is the mediator of the sensation of angina pectoris, which also results from stimulation of cardiac sympathetic afferents.

Cardiopulmonary reflexes do not modulate exercise pressor reflexes during isometric exercise in humans.

Previous studies that measured reflex vasoconstrictor responses during isometric exercise have suggested that these responses were modulated by arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflexes. The purpose of these experiments was to determine forearm vasoconstrictor responses to isometric handgrip alone and during two levels of cardiopulmonary baroreceptor unloading with lower body negative pressure (-5 and -10 mmHg LBNP). Handgrip combined with -5 mmHg LBNP produced vasoconstrictor responses that were significantly greater than the algebraic sum of the separate responses to handgrip and LBNP alone, thus confirming earlier studies. However, with -10 mmHg LBNP, the vasoconstrictor responses to LBNP plus handgrip were not different from the algebraic sum of the separate response to LBNP and handgrip alone. These results indicate that when the influence of cardiac baroreceptors was reduced to a greater degree (-10 mmHg LBNP) than in previous studies, no interaction was observed, whereas with less reduction (-5 mmHg LBNP) an apparent interaction was noted. These data, together with recent studies in which sympathetic nerve activity to the lower leg was measured during similar protocols, suggest nonlinearities in the relationship between sympathetic nerve activity and vasoconstrictor responses.

Distribution of left ventricular sympathetic afferents demonstrated by reflex responses to transmural myocardial ischemia and to intracoronary and epicardial bradykinin.

BACKGROUND: Stimulation of left ventricular (LV) receptors with sympathetic afferents generally results in reflex sympathoexcitatory responses. Stimulation of LV receptors with vagal afferents results in reflex sympathoinhibitory responses. Vagal afferents are known to be preferentially distributed to the inferoposterior (IP) wall of the LV. We tested the hypothesis that there is also a preferential distribution of LV sympathetic afferents. METHODS AND RESULTS: We measured reflex responses to stimulation of sympathetic afferents located in the anterior and IP LV: We used myocardial ischemia and chemical stimuli to increase the activity of the sensory endings in 15 chloralose-anesthetized, mechanically ventilated dogs with sinoaortic denervation and vagotomy. Reflex responses were assessed by direct recordings of efferent renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA). In nine dogs, maximal RSNA changes elicited by transmural anterior myocardial ischemia (22.6 +/- 3.9% increase from baseline nerve traffic) were not significantly different from maximal RSNA changes observed during transmural IP ischemia (27.1 +/- 4.4%). Similar changes in mean arterial and left atrial pressures were noted during transmural anterior and IP ischemia. In eight dogs, maximal changes of RSNA elicited by epicardial or intracoronary bradykinin to the anterior LV were not significantly different from those observed during bradykinin to the IP LV (anterior epicardial bradykinin, 76.7 +/- 11.7%; IP epicardial bradykinin, 72.2 +/- 10.0%; anterior intracoronary bradykinin, 84.6 +/- 21.0%; IP intracoronary bradykinin, 88.8 +/- 17.3%). CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that cardiac receptors with sympathetic afferents are distributed equally to the IP and anterior regions of the LV.

Control of sympathetic nerve activity by vagal mechanoreflexes is blunted in heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have documented abnormalities of arterial baroreflexes in animals and patients with congestive heart failure. This study determined whether cardiopulmonary reflex control of sympathetic nerve activity was abnormal in a canine model of low-output heart failure induced by rapid ventricular pacing. METHODS AND RESULTS: We stimulated mechanoreceptors throughout the cardiopulmonary region by volume expansion and left atrial mechanoreceptors selectively by inflating small balloons at the junctions of the pulmonary veins and left atrium. Responses of renal sympathetic nerve activity and left atrial and systemic arterial pressures were recorded. In the control group, 15% volume expansion raised left atrial pressure 3.5 +/- 0.8 mm Hg and resulted in a 70 +/- 8% reduction in renal nerve activity. In the heart failure group, 15% volume expansion resulted in a 6.8 +/- 3.0 mm Hg rise in left atrial pressure with only a 16 +/- 20% reduction in renal nerve activity (p < 0.01). When volume expansion was performed after pretreatment with hemorrhage to lower left atrial pressure to the normal range in the heart failure group, the markedly attenuated response in the heart failure group persisted. After vagotomy, volume expansion elicited no change in renal nerve activity. Inflation of the atrial balloons caused a 28 +/- 9% reduction in renal sympathetic nerve activity and a 13 +/- 4 mm Hg decrease in arterial pressure in the control group. Renal nerve activity (-5 +/- 3%) and mean arterial pressure (-1 +/- 1 mm Hg) did not change with balloon inflation in the heart failure group. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that dogs with low-output heart failure exhibit marked attenuation of cardiopulmonary mechanoreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity. This attenuated response is mediated via cardiac vagal afferent fibers and is due to either abnormalities in cardiopulmonary baroreceptors or abnormalities in the central nervous system.

Anomalous septal perforator artery: a source for supportive circulation in severe coronary artery disease--case reports.

Anomalous origin of a septal perforator artery is an infrequent angiographic finding. However, its recognition is important in patients with coronary artery disease in order to avoid misdiagnosis and consequent management mistake. In 2 patients, coronary arteriography demonstrated an anomalous septal perforator artery supplying significant blood flow to a myocardial region previously perfused by a severely obstructed major coronary vessel. It appears that an anomalous septal artery can serve as an important source for supportive circulation in severe coronary artery disease.

Procainamide inhibits sympathetic nerve activity in rabbits.

Procainamide has been used extensively for the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias. It is widely held that the sympathetic nervous system plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ventricular arrhythmias. We investigated the possibility that procainamide has effects on the sympathetic nervous system by determining the responses to procainamide of postganglionic renal and preganglionic lumbar nerve activity in rabbits with sinoaortic and vagal denervation. Bolus administration of procainamide (3, 7, and 15 mg/kg) resulted in dose-dependent decreases in renal sympathetic nerve activity (26%, 38%, and 57%, respectively). These boluses resulted in plasma levels of procainamide of 13.3, 23.6, and 41.7 micrograms/ml, respectively. The same doses of procainamide resulted in decreases in lumbar nerve activity of 36%, 36%, and 41%, respectively. In a separate group of rabbits pretreated with hexamethonium (n = 8), 15 mg/kg procainamide reduced lumbar nerve traffic by 38%. Infusion of procainamide at 1 mg/kg/min over 20 minutes (n = 9) resulted in a decrease in renal sympathetic nerve activity of 20% with a plasma level of 11 micrograms/ml. Sham-treated rabbits (n = 8) exhibited an 18% increase in traffic over a comparable period of time. We conclude that procainamide inhibits lumbar and renal sympathetic nerve activity through effects on the brain or spinal cord. The influence of procainamide on sympathetic nerve activity may contribute importantly to its efficacy in the therapy of ventricular arrhythmias.