ABSTRACT
Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly aggressive and deadly brain cancer. Temozolomide (TMZ) is the standard chemotherapeutic agent for GBM, but the majority of patients experience recurrence and invasion of tumor cells. We investigated whether TMZ treatment of GBM cells regulates matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which have the main function to promote tumor cell invasion. TMZ effectively killed GL261, U343, and U87MG cells at a concentration of 500 µM, and surviving cells upregulated MMP9 expression and its activity but not those of MMP2. TMZ also elevated levels of MMP9 mRNA and MMP9 promoter activity. Subcutaneous graft tumors survived from TMZ treatment also exhibited increased expression of MMP9 and enhanced gelatinolytic activity. TMZ-mediated MMP9 upregulation was specifically mediated through the phosphorylation of p38 and JNK. This then stimulates AP-1 activity through the upregulation of c-Fos and c-Jun. Inhibition of the p38, JNK, or both pathways counteracted the TMZ-induced upregulation of MMP9 and AP-1. This study proposes a potential adverse effect of TMZ treatment for GBM: upregulation of MMP9 expression potentially associated with increased invasion and poor prognosis. This study also provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms by which TMZ treatment leads to increased MMP9 expression in GBM cells.
Subject(s)
Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic , Glioblastoma , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 , Temozolomide , p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases , Temozolomide/pharmacology , Glioblastoma/drug therapy , Glioblastoma/metabolism , Glioblastoma/genetics , Glioblastoma/pathology , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/metabolism , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/genetics , Humans , p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Cell Line, Tumor , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects , MAP Kinase Signaling System/drug effects , Antineoplastic Agents, Alkylating/pharmacology , Animals , Brain Neoplasms/drug therapy , Brain Neoplasms/metabolism , Brain Neoplasms/genetics , Brain Neoplasms/pathology , Transcription Factor AP-1/metabolism , Up-Regulation/drug effects , MiceABSTRACT
CD46, a transmembrane protein known for protecting cells from complementmediated damage, is frequently dysregulated in various types of cancer. Its overexpression in bladder cancers safeguards the cancer cells against both complement and antibodymediated cytotoxicity. The present study explored a new role of CD46 in facilitating cancer cell invasion and metastasis, examining its regulatory effect on matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) and their effect on the metastatic capability of bladder cancer cells. Specifically, CD46 alteration positively influenced MMP9 expression, but not MMP2, in several bladder cancer cell lines. Furthermore, CD46 overexpression triggered phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and protein kinase B (AKT), leading to enhanced activator protein 1 (AP1) activity via cJun upregulation. The inhibition of p38 or AKT pathways attenuated the CD46induced MMP9 and AP1 upregulation, indicating that the promotion of MMP9 by CD46 involved activating both p38 MAPK and AKT. Functionally, the upregulation of MMP9 by CD46 translated to increased migratory and invasive capabilities of bladder cancer cells, as well as enhanced in vivo metastasis. Overall, the present study revealed a novel role for CD46 as a metastasis promoter through MMP9 activation in bladder cancers and highlighted the regulatory mechanism of CD46mediated MMP9 promotion via p38 MAPK and AKT activation.
Subject(s)
Cell Movement , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 , Membrane Cofactor Protein , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt , Urinary Bladder Neoplasms , p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases , Urinary Bladder Neoplasms/pathology , Urinary Bladder Neoplasms/metabolism , Urinary Bladder Neoplasms/genetics , Humans , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/metabolism , Matrix Metalloproteinase 9/genetics , Cell Line, Tumor , p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism , Mice , Animals , Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-akt/metabolism , Membrane Cofactor Protein/metabolism , Membrane Cofactor Protein/genetics , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic , Neoplasm Metastasis , Neoplasm Invasiveness , Transcription Factor AP-1/metabolism , Up-Regulation , Signal TransductionABSTRACT
CD46 is a membrane-bound complement regulatory protein (mCRP) possessing a regulatory role with the complement system. CD46 protects the host cells from damage by complement. Expression of CD46 is also highly maintained in many cancers, including bladder cancers, and thus functions as a receptor for many cancer therapeutic viruses. In this study we report a unique role of CD46 as a progression factor of cancer cells in bladder cancers. Resulting data from a DNA microarray using CD46-altered HT1376 bladder cancers demonstrated a pool of target genes, including complement C3 α chain (C3α), matrix Gla protein (MGP), AFAP-AS1, follicular dendritic cell secreted protein (FDCSP), MAM domain containing 2 (MAMDC2), gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptor pi (GABRP), transforming growth factor, beta-induced (TGFBI), a family of cytochrome P450 (CYP24A1), sialic acid binding Ig-like lectin 6 (SIGLEC6), metallothionein 1E (MT1E), and several members of cytokeratins. Subsequent studies using quantitative RT-PCR and Western blot analyses confirmed CD46-mediated regulation of C3α, MGP, and keratin 13 (KRT13). MGP and KRT13 are known to be involved in cell migration and cancer cell metastasis. A cell migration assay demonstrated that CD46 enhanced migratory potential of bladder cancer cells. Taken all together, this report demonstrated that CD46 is generally overexpressed in bladder cancers and plays a unique role in the promotion of cancer cell migration. Further detailed studies are needed to be performed to clarify the action mechanism of CD46 and its application to cancer therapeutics.
ABSTRACT
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is an effective target for those patients with metastatic colorectal cancers that retain the wild-type RAS gene. However, its efficacy in many cancers, including bladder cancer, is unclear. Here, we studied the in vitro effects of cetuximab monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting EGFR on the bladder cancer cells and role of CD46. Cetuximab was found to inhibit the growth of both colon and bladder cancer cell lines. Furthermore, cetuximab treatment inhibited AKT and ERK phosphorylation in the bladder cancer cells and reduced the expression of CD46 membrane-bound proteins. Restoration of CD46 expression protected the bladder cancer cells from cetuximab-mediated inhibition of AKT and ERK phosphorylation. We hypothesized that CD46 provides protection to the bladder cancer cells against mAb therapies. Bladder cancer cells were also susceptible to cetuximab-mediated immunologic anti-tumor effects. Further, cetuximab enhanced the cell killing by activating both antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) in bladder cancer cells. Restoration of CD46 expression protected the cells from both CDC and ADCC induced by cetuximab. Together, CD46 exhibited a cancer-protective effect against both direct (by involvement of PBMC or complement) and indirect cytotoxic activity by cetuximab in bladder cancer cells. Considering its clinical importance, CD46 could be an important link in the action mechanism of ADCC and CDC intercommunication and may be used for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.
