Ligand Isomerization Driven Electrocatalytic Switching.

The prevailing view about molecular catalysts is that the central metal ion is responsible for the reaction mechanism and selectivity, whereas the ligands mainly affect the reaction kinetics. Here, we question this paradigm and show that ligands have a dramatic influence on the selectivity of the product. We show how even a seemingly small change in ligand isomerization sharply alters the selectivity of the well-researched oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) Co phthalocyanine catalyst from an indirect 2e- to a direct 4e- pathway. Detailed analysis reveals that intramolecular hydrogen-bond interactions in the ligand activate the catalytic Co, directing the oxygen binding and thus deciding the final product. The resulting catalyst is the first example of a Co-based molecular catalyst catalyzing a direct 4e- ORR via ligand isomerization, for which it shows an activity close to the benchmark Pt in an actual H2-O2 fuel cell. The effect of the ligand isomerism is demonstrated with different central metal ions, thus highlighting the generalizability of the findings and their potential to open new possibilities in the design of molecular catalysts.

Directional molecular transport in iron redox flow batteries by interfacial electrostatic forces.

The mounting global energy demand urges surplus electricity generation. Due to dwindling fossil resources and environmental concerns, shifting from carbon-based fuels to renewables is vital. Though renewables are affordable, their intermittent nature poses supply challenges. In these contexts, aqueous flow batteries (AFBs), are a viable energy storage solution. This study tackles AFBs' energy density and efficiency challenges. Conventional strategies focus on altering molecule's solubility but overlook interface's transport kinetics. We show that triggering electrostatic forces at the interface can significantly enhance the mass transport kinetics of redox active molecules by introducing a powerful electrostatic flux over the diffusional flux, thereby exerting a precise directionality on the molecular transport. This approach of controlling the directionality of molecular flux in an all iron redox flow battery amplifies the current and power rating with approximately 140 % enhancement in the energy density.

Aqueous OH-/H+ dual-ion gradient assisted electricity effective electro-organic synthesis of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid paired with hydrogen fuel generation.

The OH-/H+ dual-ion gradient has a hidden electromotive force of 0.82 V under standard conditions; however, its non-redox nature completely prevents its direct interconversion as electrical driving force. We show by using organic molecules whose heterogeneous electron transfer is pH dependent, OH-/H+ dual-ion energy can be directly harvested as electrical driving force for performing simultaneous electro-organic synthesis and hydrogen fuel production in an electricity effective manner. To demonstrate this dual-ion gradient assisted electro-organic synthesis, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is chosen as the model molecule because of the immense techno commercial applications of its oxidized products. This dual-ion assisted device only required âˆ¼1 V to provide a current density of 50 mA/cm2 and for achieving the same rate; the traditional state-of-the-art electrolytic cell required a doubling of the applied potential. The dual-ion gradient assisted device can convert biomass-derived HMF to economically important FDCA with âˆ¼90 % yield and âˆ¼87 % Faradaic efficiency with simultaneous H2 fuel production at a potential as low as 1 V.

Coulombic Force Gated Molecular Transport in Redox Flow Batteries.

The interfacial electrochemistry of reversible redox molecules is central to state-of-the-art flow batteries, outer-sphere redox species-based fuel cells, and electrochemical biosensors. At electrochemical interfaces, because mass transport and interfacial electron transport are consecutive processes, the reaction velocity in reversible species is predominantly mass-transport-controlled because of their fast electron-transfer events. Spatial structuring of the solution near the electrode surface forces diffusion to dominate the transport phenomena even under convective fluid-flow, which in turn poses unique challenges to utilizing the maximum potential of reversible species by either electrode or fluid characteristics. We show Coulombic force gated molecular flux at the interface to target the transport velocity of reversible species; that in turn triggers a directional electrostatic current over the diffusion current within the reaction zone. In an iron-based redox flow battery, this gated molecular transport almost doubles the volumetric energy density without compromising the power capability.

Geometrical Isomerism Directed Electrochemical Sensing.

We report the independent role of isomerism of secondary sphere substituents over their nature, a factor often overlooked in molecular electrocatalysis pertaining to electrochemical sensing, by establishing that isomerism redefines the electronic structure at the catalytic reaction center via geometrical factors. UV-vis spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy suggest that a substituent's isomerism in molecular catalysts conjoins molecular planarity and catalytic activation through competing field effects and resonance effects. As a classical example, we demonstrate the influence of isomerism of the -NO2 substituents for the electrocatalytic multi electron oxidation of As(III), a potentially important electrochemical pathway for water remediation and arsenic detection. The isomerism dependent oxidative activation of catalytic center leads to a nonprecious molecular catalyst capable for direct As(III) oxidation with an experimental detection limit close to WHO guidelines. This work opens up an unusual approach in analytical chemistry for developing various sensing platforms for challenging chemical and electrochemical reactions.

Unprecedented Isomerism-Activity Relation in Molecular Electrocatalysis.

The role of electrocatalysts in energy storage/conversion, biomedical and environmental sectors, green chemistry, and much more has generated enormous interest in comprehending their structure-activity relations. While targeting the surface-to-volume ratio, exposing reactive crystal planes and interfacial modifications are time-tested considerations for activating metallic catalysts; it is primarily by substitution in molecular electrocatalysts. This account draws the distinction between a substituent's chemical identity and isomerism, when regioisomerism of the -NO2 substituent is conferred at the "α" and "ß" positions on the macrocycle of cobalt phthalocyanines. Spectroscopic analysis and theoretical calculations establish that the ß isomer accumulates catalytically active intermediates via a cumulative influence of inductive and resonance effects. However, the field effect in the α isomer restricts this activation due to a vanishing resonance effect. The demonstration of the distinct role of isomerism in substituted molecular electrocatalysts for reactions ranging from energy conversion to biosensing highlights that isomerism of the substituents makes an independent contribution to electrocatalysis over its chemical identity.

A zinc-quinone battery for paired hydrogen peroxide electrosynthesis.

Hydrogen peroxide is a commodity chemical with immense applications as an environmentally benign disinfectant for water remediation, a green oxidant for synthetic chemistry and pulp bleaching, an energy carrier molecule and a rocket propellant. It is typically synthesized by indirect batch anthraquinone process, where sequential hydrogenation and oxidation of anthraquinone molecules generates H2O2. This highly energy demanding catalytic sequence necessitates the advent of new reaction pathways with lower energy expenditure. Here we demonstrate a Zn-quinone battery for paired H2O2 electrosynthesis at the three phase boundary of its cathodic half-cell during electric power generation. The catalytic quinone half-cell of the Zn-quinone battery, mediates proton coupled electron transfer with molecular oxygen during its chemical regeneration thereby pairing peroxide electrosynthesis with electricity generation. Hydrogen peroxide synthesizing Zn-quinone battery (HPSB) demonstrated a peak power density of ~90 mW/cm2 at a peak current density of ~145 mA/cm2 while synthesizing ~230 mM of H2O2. HPSB offers immense opportunities as it distinctly couples electric power generation with peroxide electrosynthesis which in-turn transforms energy conversion in batteries truly multifunctional.

Metal Coordination Polymer Framework Governed by Heat of Hydration for Noninvasive Differentiation of Alkali Metal Series.

We illustrate that the extent of hydration and consequently the heat of hydration of alkali metal ions can be utilized to control their insertion/deinsertion chemistry in a redox active metal coordination polymer framework (CPF) electrode. The formal redox potential of CPF electrode for cation intercalation is inversely correlated to hydrated ionic radii, with clear distinction between the intercalation of ions across alkali metal series. This leads to noninvasive identification and differentiation of cations in the alkali metal series by utilizing a single sensing platform.

A hybrid hydrazine redox flow battery with a reversible electron acceptor.

Hydrazine is a pollutant with high hydrogen content, offering tremendous possibilities in a direct hydrazine fuel cell (DHFC) as it can be converted into electricity via benign end products. Due to the inner sphere nature of half-cell chemistries, hydrazine cross over triggers parasitic chemistry at the Pt-based air cathode of a state-of-the-art DHFC, overly complicating the already sluggish electrode kinetics at the positive electrode. Here, we illustrate that by altering the interfacial chemistry of the catholyte from inner sphere to outer sphere, the parasitic chemistry can be dissociated from the redox chemistry of the electron acceptor and the hybrid fuel cell can be driven by simple carbon-based cathodes. The reversible nature of an outer sphere catholyte leads to a hybrid fuel cell redox flow battery with performance metrics ∼4 times higher than a Pt-based DHFC-air configuration.

A Rechargeable Hydrogen Battery.

We utilize proton-coupled electron transfer in hydrogen storage molecules to unlock a rechargeable battery chemistry based on the cleanest chemical energy carrier molecule, hydrogen. Electrochemical, spectroscopic, and spectroelectrochemical analyses evidence the participation of protons during charge-discharge chemistry and extended cycling. In an era of anthropogenic global climate change and paramount pollution, a battery concept based on a virtually nonpolluting energy carrier molecule demonstrates distinct progress in the sustainable energy landscape.

An Electrochemical Wind Velocity Sensor.

Electrochemical interfaces invariably generate unipolar electromotive force because of the unidirectional nature of electrochemical double layers. Herein we show an unprecedented generation of a time varying bipolar electric field between identical half-cell electrodes induced by tailored interfacial migration of magnetic particles. The periodic oscillation of a bipolar electric field is monotonically correlated with velocity-dependent torque, opening new electrochemical pathways targeting velocity monitoring systems.

Fuel Exhaling Fuel Cell.

State-of-the-art proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) anodically inhale H2 fuel and cathodically expel water molecules. We show an unprecedented fuel cell concept exhibiting cathodic fuel exhalation capability of anodically inhaled fuel, driven by the neutralization energy on decoupling the direct acid-base chemistry. The fuel exhaling fuel cell delivered a peak power density of 70 mW/cm2 at a peak current density of 160 mA/cm2 with a cathodic H2 output of ∼80 mL in 1 h. We illustrate that the energy benefits from the same fuel stream can at least be doubled by directing it through proposed neutralization electrochemical cell prior to PEMFC in a tandem configuration.

Redox Active Binary Logic Gate Circuit for Homeland Security.

Bipolar junction transistors are at the frontiers of modern electronics owing to their discrete voltage regulated operational levels. Here we report a redox active binary logic gate (RLG) which can store a "0" and "1" with distinct operational levels, albeit without an external voltage stimuli. In the RLG, a shorted configuration of half-cell electrodes provided the logic low level and decoupled configuration relaxed the system to the logic high level due to self-charge injection into the redox active polymeric system. Galvanostatic intermittent titration and electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance studies indicate the kinetics of self-charge injection are quite faster and sustainable in polypyrrole based RLG, recovering more than 70% signal in just 14 s with minor signal reduction at the end of 10000 cycles. These remarkable properties of RLGs are extended to design a security sensor which can detect and count intruders in a locality with decent precision and switching speed.

A Direct Alcohol Fuel Cell Driven by an Outer Sphere Positive Electrode.

Molecular oxygen, the conventional electron acceptor in fuel cells poses challenges specific to direct alcohol fuel cells (DAFCs). Due to the coupling of alcohol dehydrogenation with the scission of oxygen on the positive electrode during the alcohol crossover, the benchmark Pt-based air cathode experiences severe competition and depolarization losses. The necessity of heavy precious metal loading with domains for alcohol tolerance in the state of the art DAFC cathode is a direct consequence of this. Although efforts are dedicated to selectively cleave oxygen, the root of the problem being the inner sphere nature of either half-cell chemistry is often overlooked. Using an outer sphere electron acceptor that does not form a bond with the cathode during redox energy transformation, we effectively decoupled the interfacial chemistry from parasitic chemistry leading to a DAFC driven by alcohol passive carbon nanoparticles, with performance metrics ∼8 times higher than Pt-based DAFC-O2.

Polarity governed selective amplification of through plane proton shuttling in proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Graphene oxide (GO) anisotropically conducts protons with directional dominance of in plane ionic transport (σ IP) over the through plane (σ TP). In a typical H2-O2 fuel cell, since the proton conduction occurs through the plane during its generation at the fuel electrode, it is indeed inevitable to selectively accelerate GO's σ TP for advancement towards a potential fuel cell membrane. We successfully achieved ∼7 times selective amplification of GO's σ TP by tuning the polarity of the dopant molecule in its nanoporous matrix. The coexistence of strongly non-polar and polar domains in the dopant demonstrated a synergistic effect towards σ TP with the former decreasing the number of water molecules coordinated to protons by ∼3 times, diminishing the effects of electroosmotic drag exerted on ionic movements, and the latter selectively accelerating σ TP across the catalytic layers by bridging the individual GO planes via extensive host guest H-bonding interactions. When they are decoupled, the dopant with mainly non-polar or polar features only marginally enhances the σ TP, revealing that polarity factors contribute to fuel cell relevant transport properties of GO membranes only when they coexist. Fuel cell polarization and kinetic analyses revealed that these multitask dopants increased the fuel cell performance metrics of the power and current densities by ∼3 times compared to the pure GO membranes, suggesting that the functional group factors of the dopants are of utmost importance in GO-based proton exchange membrane fuel cells.

Stereochemistry-Dependent Proton Conduction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells.

Graphene oxide (GO) is impermeable to H2 and O2 fuels while permitting H(+) shuttling, making it a potential candidate for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), albeit with a large anisotropy in their proton transport having a dominant in plane (σIP) contribution over the through plane (σTP). If GO-based membranes are ever to succeed in PEMFC, it inevitably should have a dominant through-plane proton shuttling capability (σTP), as it is the direction in which proton gets transported in a real fuel-cell configuration. Here we show that anisotropy in proton conduction in GO-based fuel cell membranes can be brought down by selectively tuning the geometric arrangement of functional groups around the dopant molecules. The results show that cis isomer causes a selective amplification of through-plane proton transport, σTP, pointing to a very strong geometry angle in ionic conduction. Intercalation of cis isomer causes significant expansion of GO (001) planes involved in σTP transport due to their mutual H-bonding interaction and efficient bridging of individual GO planes, bringing down the activation energy required for σTP, suggesting the dominance of a Grotthuss-type mechanism. This isomer-governed amplification of through-plane proton shuttling resulted in the overall boosting of fuel-cell performance, and it underlines that geometrical factors should be given prime consideration while selecting dopant molecules for bringing down the anisotropy in proton conduction and enhancing the fuel-cell performance in GO-based PEMFC.

Galvanic Cell Type Sensor for Soil Moisture Analysis.

Here we report the first potentiometric sensor for soil moisture analysis by bringing in the concept of Galvanic cells wherein the redox energies of Al and conducting polyaniline are exploited to design a battery type sensor. The sensor consists of only simple architectural components, and as such they are inexpensive and lightweight, making it suitable for on-site analysis. The sensing mechanism is proved to be identical to a battery type discharge reaction wherein polyaniline redox energy changes from the conducting to the nonconducting state with a resulting voltage shift in the presence of soil moisture. Unlike the state of the art soil moisture sensors, a signal derived from the proposed moisture sensor is probe size independent, as it is potentiometric in nature and, hence, can be fabricated in any shape or size and can provide a consistent output signal under the strong aberration conditions often encountered in soil moisture analysis. The sensor is regenerable by treating with 1 M HCl and can be used for multiple analysis with little read out hysteresis. Further, a portable sensor is fabricated which can provide warning signals to the end user when the moisture levels in the soil go below critically low levels, thereby functioning as a smart device. As the sensor is inexpensive, portable, and potentiometric, it opens up avenues for developing effective and energy efficient irrigation strategies, understanding the heat and water transfer at the atmosphere-land interface, understanding soil mechanics, forecasting the risk of natural calamities, and so on.