Risk assessment of triclosan released from sewage treatment plants in European rivers using a combination of risk quotient methodology and Monte Carlo simulation.

Ιn this study a probabilistic risk assessment was applied to investigate the environmental risks for the European aquatic environment associated with triclosan (TCS) occurrence in treated wastewater. The concentrations of TCS in effluents of European Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) were recorded through literature review, while toxicity data was collected for three groups of aquatic organisms (algae, Daphnia magna and fish). The ratio of Measured Environmental Concentration (MEC) and Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC), expressed as a Risk Quotient (RQ), was calculated for risk characterization, while Monte Carlo simulation was applied to quantify the associated uncertainty. TCS monitoring data was available for 349 STPs located in 15 out of the 50 European countries. Its mean concentrations in STPs effluents ranged between 2.2ngL-1 and 47,800ngL-1. Higher TCS concentrations were observed in primarily treated wastewater; whereas no differences among countries or among secondary and tertiary effluents on the basis of the whole set of collected data were found. The 95th percentile of RQ for TCS was higher than 1 (in algae) for rivers with dilution factors (DFs) equal to or lower than 100, when the maximum concentration values were used, whereas the 95th percentile of RQ exceeded 1 for rivers with DFs up to 10, in cases where the calculations were based on mean concentration values. The probability that RQ exceeds 1 in rivers (for algae) ranged from 0.2% (DF=1000) to 45% (DF=2), when calculations are based on mean concentration values. The corresponding probabilities in rivers with DFs equal to 2 for Daphnia magna and fish were 0.7% and 0.4%, respectively. We propose that TCS monitoring should be intensified, especially on smaller rivers, to verify the findings of this study for possible environmental risks.

Assessing the risk associated with the presence of emerging organic contaminants in sludge-amended soil: A country-level analysis.

Greece was used as case study and the environmental risk associated with the existence of 99 emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) in sludge-amended soil was estimated using risk quotient (RQ) approach. Data on the concentration levels of EOCs in sewage sludge was collected after literature review. Chemical analyses were also conducted for 50 pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in sludge samples from Athens Sewage Treatment Plant. Risk assessment was based on both terrestrial and aquatic acute toxicity data, using both the maximum and the average measured concentrations of the target compounds. EC50/LC50 values were collected through literature review or using the ECOSAR program in cases that experimental values were not available. Triclosan seems to pose an environmental risk on the soil environment, as its RQ values exceeded 1, both in terrestrial and aquatic toxicity data based risk assessment. Calculations based on aquatic toxicity data showed that another eleven compounds had RQs higher than 1, most of them belonging to the classes of synthetic phenolic compounds and siloxanes. Tetradecamethylhexasiloxane presented the highest RQ, while high RQs were also calculated for decamethylcyclopentasiloxane and caffeine. No environmental risk for the terrestrial environment is expected due to the individual action of illicit drugs, perfluorinated compounds and benzotriazoles. The sludge source and the day of sampling affected the estimated threat due to nonylphenolic compounds; however these factors did not affect the estimated risk for siloxanes, caffeine and ofloxacin. Calculation of RQ values for the mixture of EOCs, using either the maximum or the average concentrations, far exceeded 1 (253 and 209, respectively), indicating a presumable threat for the terrestrial environment due to the baseline toxicity of these compounds. Countries that reuse sludge for agricultural purposes should include specific EOCs in national monitoring campaigns and study more thoroughly on their effects to the terrestrial environment.

Is there a risk for the aquatic environment due to the existence of emerging organic contaminants in treated domestic wastewater? Greece as a case-study.

The ecological threat associated with emerging pollutants detected in wastewater was estimated in country level. Treated wastewater was analyzed for pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs; whereas the concentrations of all emerging contaminants determined in Greek Sewage Treatment Plants were recorded through literature review. Toxicity data was collected after literature review or using ECOSAR and risk quotients (RQs) were calculated for treated wastewater and 25 Greek rivers, for 3 different aquatic organisms (fish, daphnia magna, algae). According to the results, monitoring data was available for 207 micropollutants belonging to 8 different classes. RQ>1 was calculated for 30 compounds in secondary treated wastewater. Triclosan presented RQ>1 (in algae) for all studied rivers; decamethylcyclopentasilane (in daphnia magna), caffeine (in algae) and nonylphenol (in fish) presented RQ>1 in rivers with dilution factors (DF) equal or lower to 1910, 913 and 824, respectively. The class of emerging contaminants that present the greatest threat due to single or mixture toxicity was endocrine disrupters. The mixture of microcontaminants seems to pose significant ecological risk, even in rivers with DF equal to 2388. Future national monitoring programs should include specific microcontaminants that seem to possess environment risk to surface water.