Control elements targeting Tgfb3 expression to the palatal epithelium are located intergenically and in introns of the upstream Ift43 gene.

Tgfb3 is strongly and specifically expressed in the epithelial tips of pre-fusion palatal shelves where it plays a critical non-redundant role in palatal fusion in both medial edge epithelial (MEE) cells and in a thin layer of flattened peridermal cells that covers the MEE. It is not known how Tgfb3 expression is regulated in these specific cell types. Using comparative genomics and transgenic reporter assays, we have identified cis-regulatory elements that could control Tgfb3 expression during palatogenesis. Our results show that a 61-kb genomic fragment encompassing the Tgfb3 gene drives remarkably specific reporter expression in the MEE and adjacent periderm. Within this fragment, we identified two small, non-coding, evolutionarily conserved regions in intron 2 of the neighboring Ift43 gene, and a larger region in the intervening sequence between the Ift43 and Tgfb3 genes, each of which could target reporter activity to the tips of pre-fusion/fusing palatal shelves. Identification of the cis-regulatory sequences controlling spatio-temporal Tgfb3 expression in palatal shelves is a key step toward understanding upstream regulation of Tgfb3 expression during palatogenesis and should enable the development of improved tools to investigate palatal epithelial fusion.

AcvR1-mediated BMP signaling in second heart field is required for arterial pole development: implications for myocardial differentiation and regional identity.

BMP signaling plays an essential role in second heart field-derived heart and arterial trunk development, including myocardial differentiation, right ventricular growth, and interventricular, outflow tract and aortico-pulmonary septation. It is mediated by a number of different BMP ligands, and receptors, many of which are present simultaneously. The mechanisms by which they regulate morphogenetic events and degree of redundancy amongst them have still to be elucidated. We therefore assessed the role of BMP Type I receptor AcvR1 in anterior second heart field-derived cell development, and compared it with that of BmpR1a. By removing Acvr1 using the driver Mef2c[AHF]-Cre, we show that AcvR1 plays an essential role in arterial pole morphogenesis, identifying defects in outflow tract wall and cushion morphology that preceded a spectrum of septation defects from double outlet right ventricle to common arterial trunk in mutants. Its absence caused dysregulation in gene expression important for myocardial differentiation (Isl1, Fgf8) and regional identity (Tbx2, Tbx3, Tbx20, Tgfb2). Although these defects resemble to some degree those in the equivalent Bmpr1a mutant, a novel gene knock-in model in which Bmpr1a was expressed in the Acvr1 locus only partially restored septation in Acvr1 mutants. These data show that both BmpR1a and AcvR1 are needed for normal heart development, in which they play some non-redundant roles, and refine our understanding of the genetic and morphogenetic processes underlying Bmp-mediated heart development important in human congenital heart disease.

TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (Tak1) mediates agonist-induced Smad activation and linker region phosphorylation in embryonic craniofacial neural crest-derived cells.

BACKGROUND: The role of Smad-independent TGF-ß signaling in craniofacial development is poorly elucidated. RESULTS: In craniofacial mesenchymal cells, Tak1 regulates both R-Smad C-terminal and linker region phosphorylation in TGF-ß signaling. CONCLUSION: Tak1 plays an irreplaceable role in craniofacial ecto-mesenchyme during embryogenesis. SIGNIFICANCE: Understanding the mechanisms of TGF-ß signaling contributes to knowledge of pathogenetic mechanisms underlying common craniofacial birth defects. Although the importance of TGF-ß superfamily signaling in craniofacial growth and patterning is well established, the precise details of its signaling mechanisms are still poorly understood. This is in part because of the concentration of studies on the role of the Smad-dependent (so-called "canonical") signaling pathways relative to the Smad-independent ones in many biological processes. Here, we have addressed the role of TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (Tak1, Map3k7), one of the key mediators of Smad-independent (noncanonical) TGF-ß superfamily signaling in craniofacial development, by deleting Tak1 specifically in the neural crest lineage. Tak1-deficient mutants display a round skull, hypoplastic maxilla and mandible, and cleft palate resulting from a failure of palatal shelves to appropriately elevate and fuse. Our studies show that in neural crest-derived craniofacial ecto-mesenchymal cells, Tak1 is not only required for TGF-ß- and bone morphogenetic protein-induced p38 Mapk activation but also plays a role in agonist-induced C-terminal and linker region phosphorylation of the receptor-mediated R-Smads. Specifically, we demonstrate that the agonist-induced linker region phosphorylation of Smad2 at Thr-220, which has been shown to be critical for full transcriptional activity of Smad2, is dependent on Tak1 activity and that in palatal mesenchymal cells TGFßRI and Tak1 kinases mediate both overlapping and distinct TGF-ß2-induced transcriptional responses. To summarize, our results suggest that in neural crest-derived ecto-mesenchymal cells, Tak1 provides a critical point of intersection in a complex dialogue between the canonical and noncanonical arms of TGF-ß superfamily signaling required for normal craniofacial development.

Deficient signaling via Alk2 (Acvr1) leads to bicuspid aortic valve development.

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is the most common congenital cardiac anomaly in humans. Despite recent advances, the molecular basis of BAV development is poorly understood. Previously it has been shown that mutations in the Notch1 gene lead to BAV and valve calcification both in human and mice, and mice deficient in Gata5 or its downstream target Nos3 have been shown to display BAVs. Here we show that tissue-specific deletion of the gene encoding Activin Receptor Type I (Alk2 or Acvr1) in the cushion mesenchyme results in formation of aortic valve defects including BAV. These defects are largely due to a failure of normal development of the embryonic aortic valve leaflet precursor cushions in the outflow tract resulting in either a fused right- and non-coronary leaflet, or the presence of only a very small, rudimentary non-coronary leaflet. The surviving adult mutant mice display aortic stenosis with high frequency and occasional aortic valve insufficiency. The thickened aortic valve leaflets in such animals do not show changes in Bmp signaling activity, while Map kinase pathways are activated. Although dysfunction correlated with some pro-osteogenic differences in gene expression, neither calcification nor inflammation were detected in aortic valves of Alk2 mutants with stenosis. We conclude that signaling via Alk2 is required for appropriate aortic valve development in utero, and that defects in this process lead to indirect secondary complications later in life.

Generation of mice with a conditional allele for the p75(NTR) neurotrophin receptor gene.

The p75(NTR) neurotrophin receptor has been implicated in multiple biological and pathological processes. While significant advances have recently been made in understanding the physiologic role of p75(NTR) , many details and aspects remain to be determined. This is in part because the two existing knockout mouse models (Exons 3 or 4 deleted, respectively), both display features that defy definitive conclusions. Here we describe the generation of mice that carry a conditional p75(NTR) (p75(NTR-FX) ) allele made by flanking Exons 4-6, which encode the transmembrane and all cytoplasmic domains, by loxP sites. To validate this novel conditional allele, both neural crest-specific p75(NTR) /Wnt1-Cre mutants and conventional p75(NTR) null mutants were generated. Both mutants displayed abnormal hind limb reflexes, implying that loss of p75(NTR) in neural crest-derived cells causes a peripheral neuropathy similar to that seen in conventional p75(NTR) mutants. This novel conditional p75(NTR) allele will offer new opportunities to investigate the role of p75(NTR) in specific tissues and cells.

Neural crest cell-specific deletion of Rac1 results in defective cell-matrix interactions and severe craniofacial and cardiovascular malformations.

The small GTP-binding protein Rac1, a member of the Rho family of small GTPases, has been implicated in regulation of many cellular processes including adhesion, migration and cytokinesis. These functions have largely been attributed to its ability to reorganize cytoskeleton. While the function of Rac1 is relatively well known in vitro, its role in vivo has been poorly understood. It has previously been shown that in neural crest cells (NCCs) Rac1 is required in a stage-specific manner to acquire responsiveness to mitogenic EGF signals. Here we demonstrate that mouse embryos lacking Rac1 in neural crest cells (Rac1/Wnt1-Cre) showed abnormal craniofacial development including regional ectodermal detachment associated with mesenchymal acellularity culminating in cleft face at E12. Rac1/Wnt1-Cre mutants also displayed inappropriate remodelling of pharyngeal arch arteries and defective outflow tract septation resulting in the formation of a common arterial trunk ('persistent truncus arteriosus' or PTA). The mesenchyme around the aortic sac also developed acellular regions, and the distal aortic sac became grossly dysmorphic, forming a pair of bilateral, highly dilated arterial structures connecting to the dorsal aortas. Smooth muscle cells lacking Rac1 failed to differentiate appropriately, and subpopulations of post-migratory NCCs demonstrated aberrant cell death and attenuated proliferation. These novel data demonstrate that while Rac1 is not required for normal NCC migration in vivo, it plays a critical cell-autonomous role in post-migratory NCCs during craniofacial and cardiac development by regulating the integrity of the craniofacial and pharyngeal mesenchyme.

PDGF-A as an epicardial mitogen during heart development.

In the developing heart, reciprocal interactions between the epicardium and myocardium drive further sublineage specification and ventricular chamber morphogenesis. Several observations suggest that the epicardium is a source of secreted factors that influence cardiomyocyte proliferation, and these factors may have other roles as well. However, the identity of these epicardial factors remains mostly unknown. We have identified platelet-derived growth factor-A (PDGF-A) as one of several mitogens expressed by the rat EMC epicardial cell line (epicardial mesothelial cells), by embryonic epicardium and myocardium during mouse heart development, and by adult epicardium. Expression of the cognate receptor gene Pdgfra was detected in the epicardium, although a low level of expression in myocardium could not be ruled out. To address the potential role of PDGF signaling in heart development, we mutated both PDGF receptor genes in the myocardial and mesodermal compartments of the heart; however, this did not result in an observable cardiac phenotype. This finding suggests that mesodermal PDGF signaling is not essential in heart development, although its role may be redundant with other signaling pathways. Indeed, our results demonstrate the presence of additional mitogens that may have such an overlapping role.

Characterization of structural and signaling molecules by human valve interstitial cells and comparison to human mesenchymal stem cells.

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE STUDY: Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a potential cell source for the tissue engineering of biological structures, including cardiac valves. A comprehensive, phenotypic analysis of MSCs and, for the latter, their comparison with valve interstitial cells (ICs) is therefore essential. METHODS: Isolates of bone marrow-derived human MSCs and human cardiac valve ICs were extensively phenotyped for their expression of membrane proteins involved in adhesion and cell-cell communication, cytoskeletal components, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and gene expression of WNT/FZD/SFRP/DKK/LRP family members. RESULTS: MSCs and valve ICs (>80%) expressed fibroblast surface antigen, smooth muscle alpha-actin, vimentin and CD44; expression of MHC class I and II and calponin was inconsistent, and a small proportion expressed desmin and smooth muscle myosin. CD105 was weakly expressed by a low percentage of valve ICs (<10%) compared to MSCs (>90%). ECM components made by both cell types demonstrated similar levels and patterns of staining, although expression of elastin was not detected by both cell types. Adhesion molecule expression was highly variable among the MSC isolates and between the two cell types, with the predominant integrins being alphal, alpha3, alpha5, and beta1 by both cell types. PCR analysis of WNT/FZD/SFRP/LRP family members revealed a greater range of the WNT family of genes being expressed in MSCs compared to ICs. CONCLUSION: The study results provided an extensive fingerprint of valve ICs and of MSCs for the tissue engineering of biological structures and for the manipulation of their desired phenotype. MSCs represent a promising cell type for valve tissue engineering, and will require extensive phenotyping after differentiation.

The cardiac valve interstitial cell.

Cardiac valve interstitial cells (ICs) are a heterogeneous and dynamic population of specific cell types that have many unique characteristics. They are responsible for maintaining the extracellular scaffold that provides the mechanical characteristics vital for sustaining the unique dynamic behaviour of the valve. A number of cellular phenotypes can be distinguished: some are sparsely arranged throughout the valve leaflets, whilst others are arranged in thin bundles. These cells express molecular markers similar to those of skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and in particular, many ICs express smooth muscle (SM) alpha-actin, a marker of myofibroblasts. In this respect, these cells exhibit a profile unlike skin fibroblasts, which may allude to their role in valve function.