Dairy cow hoof impact and slide measurements for common Ontario dairy farm floorings.

In the context of understanding lameness and injury from slipping, our objective was to characterize hoof impact and slide of 5 cows walking on 6 flooring surfaces commonly used in Ontario dairy farms: diamond-grooved concrete (DC), sanded epoxy-covered concrete (EC), grooved rubber mat (GR), high-profile rubber mat (HR), low-profile rubber mat (LR), and turf grass (TG; Kentucky bluegrass/fescue mix). Surface hardness was measured on each surface using a Clegg Impact Soil Tester. Five trained lactating Holstein cows were each walked over all 6 surfaces sequentially in a randomized order. Walking speeds were determined from 60-fps videos. A 3-axis accelerometer attached to the lateral claw of each hindfoot captured continuous horizontal (aH), vertical (aV), lateral (aTLat), and medial (aTMed) accelerations at 2,500 Hz during each trial, from which peak values were identified. Data from 45°-rosette strain gauges glued to the dorsal surface of both medial and lateral hooves allowed for the calculation of principal strains (ε1 and ε2). From continuous data, several data points were extracted from 3 to 6 stances/trial: peak values of aH, aV, and aT for the impact phase of the stance; midstance values of ε1 and ε2 as proxies for force on the foot; magnitudes of normal (i.e., consistent and repeatable) sliding on the surface during the support phase; and 3 timing events to capture the cadence of the motion. All aH and aV signals were inspected onscreen to identify irregularities between the end of impact and beginning of breakover that indicated hoof slipping, which was observed on all surfaces. The effects on all measured variables of surface, cow, speed, and hoof (and all significant higher-order factors) were assessed by ANOVA in SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc.), after verifying data normality. Values of aHmax, indicating grip on the surface from highest to lowest, ranked the surfaces in this order: LR, DC, HR, GR, EC, and TG. Ranking on aVmax, indicating most to least cushioning of the hoof on impact, ranked the surfaces in this order: DC, HR, GR, EC, LR, and TG. Differences in ranking among these and other significant impact variables indicate that future studies of lameness on different surfaces need to include all significant variables identified here. We detected no surface and strain interactions in either the ε1 or ε2 strain, indicating that the surfaces do not affect the overall loads on the foot at midstance. Additionally, lateral and medial hooves may have different roles in a stance. The results highlight the capacity to evaluate flooring types with this technology, and the study provides a tool for future work to examine the role of flooring types in the causation of lameness.

Dynamic testing of horseshoe designs at impact on synthetic and dirt Thoroughbred racetrack materials.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Different horseshoe designs have been developed in an attempt to optimise footing for equine athletes. Horseshoe performance is assumed to be dependent on the surface and gait, but there are limited data on horseshoe performance on different surfaces, independent of gait variation. OBJECTIVES: To quantify the dynamic loading for 3 aluminium racing shoe designs on Thoroughbred racetrack surface materials, using a biomechanical surface tester. STUDY DESIGN: A flat racing plate, a serrated V-Grip and a shoe with a 6 mm toe grab and 10 mm heel calks were tested on synthetic and dirt surfaces under typical operating conditions of temperature and moisture content for the respective material samples. METHODS: Samples were tested under laboratory conditions, replicating a track surface by compacting material into a latex-lined mould surrounded by silica sand for representative boundary conditions. Peak loading and loading rates were measured vertically and horizontally (craniocaudal), simulating aspects of primary and secondary impacts of the hoof in a galloping horse. RESULTS: Maximum vertical and shear loads and loading rates were not significantly different between shoe types, with the exception of a reduced craniocaudal loading rate for the V-Grip shoe on the synthetic surface. All other statistical significance was related to the surface material. CONCLUSIONS: These 3 different Thoroughbred racing shoes do not have a significant impact on loading and loading rate, with the exception of the V-Grip shoe on a synthetic surface. Although the V-Grip may reduce craniocaudal peak load rates in a synthetic material with relatively high wax and/or low oil content, the reduction in load rate is less than the difference found between materials. This study indicates that shoeing has little effect, and that a track's surface material and its preparation have a significant effect on the dynamic loading during the impact phase of the stance.

Effect of hoof angle on joint contact area in the equine metacarpophalangeal joint following simulated impact loading ex vivo.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: To add to the existing data on impact loading of the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint as a precursor to assessing the potential role of impact in joint disease. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effect of impact loading on contact areas of the first phalanx (P1) and proximal sesamoids (PS) with the third metacarpal (McIII) under 3 hoof-strike conditions (toe-first, flat, heel-first). STUDY DESIGN: Randomised, repeated controlled experiment using cadaver material. METHODS: Eight cadaver limbs were subjected to randomised, repeated controlled trials where the hoof was struck by a pendulum impact machine (impact velocity 3.55 m/s) under 3 strike conditions. Data from pressure sensitive film placed over medial and lateral McIII condyles and lateromedially across the dorsal aspect of McIII were quantified: total areas of P1 and PS contact (cm(2) ) at maximum recorded pressure; centroid locations of contact areas relative to the sagittal ridge (cm) and transverse ridge (cm) and dispersion of pixels (cm(4) ) for each McIII condyle (medial/lateral). The effect of the strike conditions on each variable were statistically tested using repeated-measures ANOVA (α = 0.05). RESULTS: Contact area between P1 and McIII condyles fell in well-defined areas bounded by the sagittal and transverse ridge, contact areas from PS were smaller and widely dispersed across McIII palmar border. Ratio of contact area of P1 to PS was 2.83 (P<0001). Hoof strike had no significant effect on contact area (P>0.54) CONCLUSIONS: Contact at impact (primarily from P1 and distally situated on McIII), contrasts with contact areas at midstance from both P1 and PS, symmetrically placed. Under impact, the greatest contact area was on the dorsal aspect of the medial condyle and coincides with the area subjected to the greatest increase in subchondral bone stiffening in joint disease.

Effect of hoof orientation and ballast on acceleration and vibration in the hoof and distal forelimb following simulated impacts ex vivo.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: We wished to add to the existing baseline data on impact loading of the distal limb as a precursor to assessing the potential role of impact in injury and joint disease. OBJECTIVES: To examine the effect of 3 hoof-strike conditions (toe first, flat and heel first) and 2 specimen masses (with and without a ballast of ∼2% body mass) on impact deceleration and vibration frequencies and energies at the hoof, first phalanx and third metacarpal. STUDY DESIGN: Biomechanical experiments in cadaver material. METHODS: Eight cadaver limbs were subjected to randomised, repeated controlled trials, in which the hoof was struck by a pendulum impact-testing machine (impact velocity, 3.55 m/s) in the 3 strike and 2 mass conditions. Data from triaxial accelerometers on the hoof, first phalanx and third metacarpal quantified, for all trials, the peak impact acceleration, frequencies in the first 6.4 ms following impact, the frequency with the most energy, 95% of the total energy and the frequency at 95% cumulative energy. The effects of the strike and mass conditions on each variable were statistically tested using repeated-measures ANOVA (α = 0.05). RESULTS: Signal energy reaching the third metacarpal was 6-31% of that at the hoof. A heel-first strike produced the largest peak accelerations and highest frequencies among all strike conditions, and changing the mass had no effect regardless of strike condition. CONCLUSIONS: Large accelerations that occur upon impact of the hoof with the ground are attenuated by the distal structures of the equine limb, but still carry considerable energy within the signal that could be damaging to tissue and are dependent on hoof-strike condition but not ballast. Our results suggest that impact loading on the hoof could be a factor in contributing to bone injury and joint disease in the distal limb.

The effects of perineural and intrasynovial anaesthesia of the equine foot on subsequent magnetic resonance images.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Artefacts caused by regional anaesthesia can influence image interpretation of ultrasonography and nuclear scintigraphy. Perineural and intrasynovial anaesthesia are commonly performed prior to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); and the effects on MR images, if any, are unknown. OBJECTIVES: To determine if perineural and intrasynovial anaesthesia of structures in the equine foot cause iatrogenic changes detectable with MRI. METHODS: A baseline MRI examination of both front feet was performed on 15 horses, 2-6 days prior to mepivacaine injection adjacent to the lateral and medial palmar digital nerves, and into the podotrochlear bursa, digital flexor tendon sheath and distal interphalangeal joint of one randomly assigned forelimb. Magnetic resonance imaging was repeated at 24 and 72 h post injection; then qualitative and quantitative assessments of MRI findings were performed. RESULTS: Magnetic resonance imaging findings associated with the palmar digital nerves, podotrochlear bursa and distal interphalangeal joint at 24 and 72 h after mepivacaine injection did not alter significantly from those at baseline. Compared with baseline, a significant increase in synovial fluid volume of the digital flexor tendon sheath was detected with MRI at 24 and 72 h post injection. CONCLUSIONS: Perineural anaesthesia of the palmar digital nerves and intrasynovial anaesthesia of the podotrochlear or distal interphalangeal joint did not interfere with the interpretation of MR images acquired at 24 or 72 h after injection. However, intrasynovial anaesthesia of the digital flexor tendon sheath caused an iatrogenic increase in synovial fluid, detectable on MR images for at least 72 h. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Although a definite time frame for resolution of digital flexor tendon sheath distension was not determined, we recommend waiting more than 3 days between intrasynovial anaesthesia of the digital flexor tendon sheath and evaluation with MRI.

Quantitative morphology of the equine laminar junction in relation to capsule shape in the forehoof of Standardbreds and Thoroughbreds.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Differences in hoof morphology have largely been underappreciated in the literature until recently, and it is these that hold the key to interpreting functional adaptation in the hoof. HYPOTHESES: Primary laminar morphology correlates with hoof capsule shape; and breeds with different hoof shapes and loadings show different patterns of correlation. METHODS: Seventeen measurements of capsule shape and 3 of primary epidermal laminae (PEL) morphology (spacing, orientation and curvature) were made on right and left front hooves from 27 Standardbred and 25 Thoroughbred horses, and tested for breed differences. Three laminar variables (spacing, orientation and curvature) were measured on each hoof for samples of 25 PEL in 5 circumferential and 4 proximodistal locations. Pairwise correlations of capsular and laminar measurements were compared within breeds. Significant correlations were mapped onto the 20 sampling sites. RESULTS: Capsule shape differed significantly between breeds in 7 measurements and in a multivariate test. Between breeds, PEL differed in orientation and spacing primarily at the medial quarters and heels, and in curvature at both quarters (P<0.05). Significant correlations between several pairs of capsule and laminar variables were found at sample locations that differed markedly between breeds. CONCLUSIONS: Laminar morphology, hoof capsule shape and correlations between them differ between Standardbreds and Thoroughbreds. These results support the concept that remodelling of PEL is, at least in part, stimulated and directed by varying stress or strain levels in the laminar junction. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Understanding the biological responses of hoof tissues to stress should add to the ability to prevent lameness involving the hoof and maintain its health.

Effect of heel elevation on forelimb conformation in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the conformational changes in the distal forelimb of horses following heel elevation of 15 degrees and greater. An experimental study with repeated, within-horse measurements. PROCEDURE: Five clinically normal, mixed-breed horses were used to determine distal forelimb conformation following heel elevation from 0 to 45 degrees in 15 degree increments. Data were also compared to conformation of the limb in a Kimzey splint. Conformation was determined using lateral to medial radiographic projections. Conformation parameters assessed included measurement of apparent lengths of digital flexor tendons from the origin of their accessory ligaments to the points of insertion, and the joint angles of the distal limb. RESULTS: For angles of heel elevation from 15 to 45 degrees, the degree of joint angulation increased (increasing flexion) with heel elevation for the metacarpophalangeal, and proximal and distal interphalangeal joints. Conversely, the measured apparent lengths of the digital flexor tendons in the distal limb, decreased. CONCLUSION: The data supports the practice of elevating the heel (greater than 15 degrees) for conditions in which decreased fetlock extension may be desired such as with laceration or injury to the digital flexor tendons. Further study is required to determine whether heel elevation greater than 15 degrees reduces in vivo digital flexor tendon tension and also to ensure that the marked flexion of the distal interphalangeal joint with greater heel elevation is not detrimental over a prolonged period that may be required for the rehabilitation of flexor tendon injuries in the horse.

Analysis of strain and stress in the equine hoof capsule using finite element methods: comparison with principal strains recorded in vivo.

Finite-element (FE) methods have great potential in equine biomechanics in evaluating mechanical stresses and strains in tissues deep within the hoof. In this study, we critically assessed that potential by comparing results of FE analyses of capsular strain with in vivo data. Nine FE models were developed, corresponding to the shape of hooves for which in vivo principal strain data are available. Each model had the wall, laminar junction, sole and distal phalanx (PIII). In a first loading condition (LC1), force is distributed uniformly to the bearing surface of the wall to determine reaction forces and moment on PIII. These reaction forces were subsequently applied to PIII in loading condition 2 (LC2) to simulate loading via the skeleton. Magnitude of the force resultant was equivalent to the vertical force on the hoof at midstance. Principal compressive strains epsilon2 were calculated at the locations of 5 rosette gauges on the real hooves and are compared with the in vivo strains at midstance. FE strains were from 16 to 221% of comparable in vivo values, averaging 104%. All models in this, and reports by other workers, show predominance of stress and strain at the toe to a greater extent than in the real hoof. The primary conclusion is that FE modelling of strain in the hoof capsule or deeper tissues of individual horses should not be attempted without corroborating experimental data.

In vivo surface strain and stereology of the frontal and maxillary bones of sheep: implications for the structural design of the mammalian skull.

Does the skull of the sheep behave as a tube or as a complex of independent bones linked by sutures? Is the architecture within cranial bones optimized to local strain alignment? We attempted to answer these questions for the sheep by recording from rosette strain gauges on each frontal and maxillary bone and from single-axis gauges on each dentary of five sheep while they fed on hay. Bone structure was assessed at each rosette gauge site by stereological analysis of high-resolution radiographs. Structural and strain orientations were tested for statistical agreement. Ranges of strain magnitudes were +/-1200 mu epsilon on the mandible, +/-650 mu epsilon on the frontals, and +/-400 mu epsilon on the maxillae. Each gauge site experienced one strain signal when on the working (chewing) side and a different one when on the balancing (nonchewing) side. The two signals differed in mode, magnitude, and orientation. For example, on the working side, maxillary gauges were under mean compressive strains of -132 mu epsilon (S.D., 73.3 mu epsilon), oriented rostroventrally at 25 degrees -70 degrees to the long axis of the skull. On the balancing side, the same gauges were under mean tensile strains of +319 mu epsilon (S.D., 193.9 mu epsilon), at greater than 65 degrees to the cranial axis. Strain patterns on the frontals are consistent with torsion and bending of the whole skull, indicating some degree of tube-like mechanical behavior. Frontal and maxillary strains also showed a degree of individual loading, resulting from modulation of strains across sutures and local effects of muscle activity. The sheep skull seems to behave as a tube made of a complex of independent bones. Structural orientation was in statistically significant agreement with the orientation of working-side compressive principal strain epsilon 2, even though principal tensile strains may be as large or larger. Cranial bone architecture in sheep is not optimized to both strain signals it experiences.

Components of variation of surface hoof strain with time.

The relative contribution of a number of random and fixed variables to variation in surface strain magnitudes on the hoof capsule was assessed for healthy feet under normal conditions. Principal strains were recorded in vivo from 5 rosette gauges glued around the circumference of the right forefeet of 4 horses on 4 occasions over a 9 month period. Recordings were made at every other trimming and reshoeing. During each session, gauges were positioned with a template for repeatability. Strains were recorded at the trot and canter (at consistent speeds), for straight motion and turns, and before and after the hoof was trimmed and reset. Up to 30 strides were recorded for each combination of these variables. ANOVAs were performed on midstance strains of 7008 strides to determine the relative contributions to strain variation of individual horse, test day, gait and direction combined as one factor, gauge position on the hoof, trimming, interstride variability and the interactions among these factors. The ANOVA model explained 87% of the variation, of which approximately 84% was due to fixed effects and 16% to random effects. Circumferential position of the gauges and several of the interactions including this term were by far the greatest contributors to strain variation. Differences among gauge positions, individuals and gait + direction are consistent with previous work. This study has added the relative effects, which are small but significant, of trimming on a regular basis and of time. The change in strain magnitudes with trimming was different for each horse, which leads to the possibility that over- and underuse may have to be quantified on an individual basis.

Cranial design and function in a large theropod dinosaur.

Finite element analysis (FEA) is used by industrial designers and biomechanicists to estimate the performance of engineered structures or human skeletal and soft tissues subjected to varying regimes of stress and strain. FEA is rarely applied to problems of biomechanical design in animals, despite its potential to inform structure-function analysis. Non-invasive techniques such as computed tomography scans can be used to generate accurate three-dimensional images of structures, such as skulls, which can form the basis of an accurate finite element model. Here we have applied this technique to the long skull of the large carnivorous theropod dinosaur Allosaurus fragilis. We have generated the most geometrically complete and complex FEA model of the skull of any extinct or extant organism and used this to test its mechanical properties and examine, in a quantitative way, long-held hypotheses concerning overall shape and function. The combination of a weak muscle-driven bite force, a very 'light' and 'open' skull architecture and unusually high cranial strength, suggests a very specific feeding behaviour for this animal. These results demonstrate simply the inherent potential of FEA for testing mechanical behaviour in fossils in ways that, until now, have been impossible.

Morphology of the laminar junction in relation to the shape of the hoof capsule and distal phalanx in adult horses (Equus caballus).

The purpose was to investigate whether differences in equine hoof shape, which are inferred to alter foot function, are accompanied by differences in morphology of the laminar junction. Ten fore feet from adult horses were segregated into normal and low-angle groups, depending on the dorsal angle of the hoof wall. Twenty measurements of external hoof shape and four of the enclosed distal phalanx were tested for differences between groups, and for intragroup correlations. Three measurements of laminar morphology (spacing, orientation and degree of bend) were recorded for samples of up to 50 primary epidermal laminae at each of 20 sample sites. Sites were distributed over the foot in 5 circumferential columns and 4 proximodistal rows. Intergroup differences were investigated, as were correlations among sample sites of the laminar variables with the shape measurements. Results show differences in hoof shape between groups (but not bone shape) and laminar morphology. Six shape measurements are significantly different between groups: dorsal angle, medial and lateral angles, lateral sole width, solar circumference, and dorsal length. In the normal group, shape measurements show patterns of correlation among regions of the hoof, and between hoof and bone measurements. In the low-angle group, shape correlations occur largely within one region of the hoof (the heels) and in the bone measurements. Laminar spacing tends to be nonsignificantly greater in the low-angle group, while variances for laminar spacing and orientation are significantly greater in this group. Laminar spacing correlates with bone width and coronary circumference (CC) of the hoof in the normal group, but only with CC in the low-angle group. When taken as a whole, and interpreted in light of a model of foot mechanical function, the results appear to indicate a deterioration in structural coherence of the foot in the low-angle group.

Shape, orientation and spacing of the primary epidermal laminae in the hooves of neonatal and adult horses (Equus caballus).

Circumferential and proximodistal variations in the morphology of the primary epidermal laminae of six neonatal and five adult equine feet were documented. Three parameters were quantified: interlaminar spacing, the orientation of the laminae with respect to the overlying wall, and any angulation within the laminae themselves ('internal angle'). In adult feet, the laminae were most closely spaced at the dorsum, the spacing increasing gradually towards the heels. In foals there was a non-significant trend for the dorsal laminae to be more widely spaced than those in more caudal parts of the foot. In both age groups, the dorsal laminae were almost straight (mean divergence from linearity at all sites 2 degrees ), and were oriented at approximately 90 degrees to the tangent to the overlying wall (mean orientation for all sites 91 degrees ). At the quarters, the laminae were in general oriented caudally relative to the tangential position from their epidermal to their dermal ends (mean orientation of >90 degrees at 12 of 16 sampling sites, where an orientation of >90 degrees defines a 'caudally directed' orientation) and, in general, had a bend within their length (mean absolute value of internal angle for all sites 9 degrees ). At the heels there was greater variability in the data for both laminar orientation and internal angle. Overall, the foal feet showed greater mediolateral symmetry and less proximodistal variation than did the adult feet. In both age groups, rapid spatial changes in laminar morphology were closely associated with the position of the margins of the third phalanx.

Stress/strain behaviour of the equine laminar junction.

The equine laminar junction plays a vital role in transferring the forces of weight-bearing between the epidermal hoof wall and the bone of the third phalanx, but the way in which it performs this function is poorly understood. Using samples from sites varying proximodistally and circumferentially around the hoof, the stress/strain behaviour of this tissue was characterised in three directions: radial tension and proximodistal and mediolateral shear. The influences of toe angle and length were also examined. For all three test directions, the modulus of elasticity increased with increasing strain magnitude. The mean modulus of elasticity in tension was 18.25+/-5.38 MPa (mean +/-1 S.D., N=116; mean strain 0. 25). In proximodistal shear, the mean shear modulus was 5.38+/-1.49 MPa (N=76; mean shear strain 0.48) and in mediolateral shear 2. 57+/-0.91 MPa (N=66; mean shear strain 0.81). In many cases, the individual hoof or horse from which the samples were taken significantly affected the value of the modulus, suggesting that mechanical history may affect the material properties of this tissue. Few biologically significant variations with location, toe length or toe angle were unambiguously demonstrated, suggesting that the material properties of the laminar junction are independent of position, despite apparent regional variations in function, and that foot shape is not a major determinant of material properties.

Effect of rider and riding style on deformation of the front hoof wall in warmblood horses.

A rider modifies the weight distribution and dynamic balance of the horse. But what effect does a rider have on the mechanical behaviour of the hoof during each stance phase? Does riding style have any effect on this behaviour? We attempted to answer these questions using strains recorded from 5 rosette strain gauges glued to the surface of the front hooves of 4 Warmblood horses. Comparisons were made between strains with and without a rider, and when the rider was sitting, rising at a trot, or in a forward seated position. The change in strains from trot to lead or nonlead at a canter, and the effect of turning were also studied. Changing lead at a canter had as least as much effect on strain magnitudes as did turning; strains were up to 43% higher for the nonlead foot, but with little redistribution. Perhaps surprisingly, strains were significantly lower on the quarters by up to 30% with a rider than without, with a 10% increase or decrease at the toe, depending on the individual. Riding style changed strain magnitudes by up to 20% and also caused strain redistribution: strains were higher medially for sitting, and laterally for forward seat, with strains for a rising trot being more evenly distributed and intermediate in magnitude. Studying the range of, and causes of variation in hoof wall strain gives baseline data aimed, in the long term, at providing a biomechanical definition of hoof balance.

Variation in surface strain on the equine hoof wall at the midstep with shoeing, gait, substrate, direction of travel, and hoof shape.

Objectives were to examine the deformation of the healthy equine front hoof during locomotion, by recording strains on its outer surface, and to test whether its mechanical behaviour is significantly altered under different locomotory conditions and variation in hoof shape. Strains were recorded in vivo from 5 rosette gauges around the circumference of the right forehooves of 12 horses. The magnitudes and orientations of principal strains at the midstep were compared statistically for different conditions of shoeing (shod vs. unshod), gait (walk vs. trot), substrate (treadmill vs. ground), and direction of travel (straight, right turn, left turn). Principal strains were regressed on 4 variables describing hoof shape-toe length, toe angle, and medial and lateral wall angle--to describe their contribution to variations in strain and hoof deformation. Shoeing did not essentially change the magnitudes of the larger, compressive principal strain, but caused some strain reorientation. Shoes decreased the variation in strains indicating that they tend to stabilise the deformation of the hoof. Strain magnitudes were significantly greater at trot than walk, but there was little change in orientation indicating that the general pattern of deformation of the hoof is constant between these 2 gaits. Strain patterns showed small but significant differences between locomotion on the treadmill and on ground, with the differences being more apparent at the toe than at the sides of the hoof. When turning, the quarter on the inside of the turn experienced 40% more strain than during straightline motion, while strain was similarly reduced on the opposite quarter. Strain magnitudes increase with toe length and toe angle, but were inversely proportional to medial and lateral angles. The change with toe length correlated with the range of body size of the animals in the sample. The change with toe angle was contrary to that found in in vitro tests. The change with medial and lateral angles indicated that hooves with more upright quarters are stiffer and possibly provide less impact absorption.

The modulus of elasticity of equine hoof wall: implications for the mechanical function of the hoof.

During normal weight-bearing and locomotion, the equine hoof wall deforms in a consistent pattern; the proximal dorsal wall rotates caudo-ventrally about the distal dorsal border and there is latero-medial flaring posteriorly. The aim of this study is to examine whether there are regional differences in the modulus of elasticity of hoof wall material and whether such differences correlate with the pattern of deformation which occurs in vivo. The modulus of elasticity of equine hoof wall was determined in tension and compression for samples from six forefeet. Samples were tested at the mid-point of the inner and outer halves of the wall thickness at two positions along the proximo-distal axis of the dorsal wall, and from the mid-point of its thickness at the lateral and medial quarters. Test samples were oriented both parallel and perpendicular to the tubules that characterise the microstructure of the wall. The colour of each sample was noted, and the moisture content measured. The range in the mean modulus of elasticity for all samples and tests was 460-1049 MPa, the dorsal outer wall having the highest values, the dorsal inner wall the lowest, and the quarters having intermediate values. The mean value obtained for the quarters was similar to the average of the values for the dorsal inner and outer walls. At all sites, the modulus of elasticity was marginally higher in compression than in tension, possibly owing to microstructural defects. The difference in stiffness between the outer wall and the inner wall was inversely related to moisture content. The difference in stiffness between the dorsal outer and inner walls demonstrates that the equine hoof wall has a comparatively rigid external capsule with a lining of lower stiffness. This arrangement presumably provides some stress protection to the internally adjacent living tissues. The similarity in stiffness between the samples from the quarters and the mean of the two dorsal wall sites suggests that the wall at the quarters has a similar change in stiffness across its thickness as the dorsal wall. However, the reduced thickness of the wall at the quarters compared with the dorsal wall means that, functionally, the quarters are more flexible than the dorsal wall. This will facilitate the flaring of the lateral and medial walls which occurs during weight-bearing. Anisotropy was evident only in tensile tests of the dorsal wall samples. Contrary to popular assertions that white hooves are mechanically inferior, horn pigmentation had no detectable effect on stiffness.

Force and stiffness changes during Ilizarov leg lengthening.

Biomechanical considerations of limb lengthening procedures are fundamental to their clinical outcome. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships among force, stiffness, and distracted length in a patient whose leg was lengthened 50 mm with the Ilizarov procedure. A modified Ilizarov apparatus with force transducers in its three columns was surgically applied to the left tibia of an 11-year-old female patient after corticotomy of the proximal metaphysis. The leg was distracted 0.25 mm four times daily for 50 days, commencing six days after surgery. At approximately weekly intervals, forces at rest were recorded before and after distraction. Resting predistractional force magnitudes increased almost linearly during the first three weeks of lengthening, from 49 N to 223 N. The rate of increase slowed markedly thereafter with a further force increase of 11 N in the next three weeks. The stiffness of the limb, derived from the change in force accompanying the 0.25-mm change in length, increased by approximately 3.9%/mm of distracted length with 95% confidence limits of 6.8% and 0.9%. These results show marked differences from the nonlinearly increasing force-displacement relationship during in vitro limb distraction.

An inexpensive strain gage amplifier and signal conditioner for biological applications.

The design and operation of a strain gage signal conditioning amplifier is described. The complete amplifier is based on the Analog Devices 2B30 module and features adjustable gain, bridge excitation voltage, bridge balance, d.c. offset and low-pass filtering. The ease of construction and low cost of this amplifier make it ideal for applications requiring a large number of signal channels.