Another look at heredity and environment as shapers of the person: a proximal-distal framework for consideration.

"An important psychological question addressed by population researchers pertains to what causes us to be what we are--what might predict reliably to intelligence, interpersonal style, or other aspects of the psycho-social being. The goal of this paper is not to propose or rule out various causal factors, but rather to offer a developmental perspective that may provide a greater understanding of the ways in which distal and proximal factors might influence such processes throughout the life span. We will begin by reviewing some major approaches and will then attempt to meld these into a developmental perspective.... We offer some inferences we have derived from a review of literature pertaining to four stages of development: infancy and early childhood; pre-school and kindergarten; first through sixth grades; and sixth grade through high school."

Race differences in self-perception and locus of control during adolescence and early adulthood: methodological implications.

Data from a longitudinal sample of 14,721 White (7,193 men, 7,528 women) and 5,197 Black (2,400 men, 2,797 women) American high school students tested first between ages 16 and 19 and then in two follow-ups 4 and 6 years later were examined to determine Black-White and male-female differences in self-esteem and causal orientations. On general self-esteem scores, Blacks rated themselves more positively than Whites. Blacks also rated themselves more positively on specific self-beliefs (e.g., social attractiveness), although the magnitude of differences in such cases was quite small. On control measures, Blacks perceived greater external control pertaining to both cultural events and personal efficacy, although they had slightly greater expectations about future academic success. Results concerning the general and personal self-efficacy of Blacks were somewhat inconsistent with earlier reports (Coleman et al., 1966; Osborne & LeGette, 1982). Women tended to show less self-efficacy than men, but there were no interactions of race and sex. Even in the presence of significant effects for race and sex, mean differences tended to be relatively small.

Adolescents' attributions of parental power: a re-examination of the 'theory of resources in cultural context'.

Using a multidimensional parental power framework, power bases derived from adolescent descriptions of parent-child interactions and family decision making were regressed on a multidimensional power construct and showed differential importance of predictor variables. Rodman's (1972) modified 'theory of resources in cultural context' is supported. Father's education alone does not lead to loss of paternal power; paternal power retention or loss must be considered in relation to such variables as maternal age and education and paternal age, and within relevant power categories. Mother's education affects her power bases; she increasingly shares culturally prescribed maternal and paternal power as her education increases. Her decreases in traditionally prescribed maternal power are not offset by an equivalent increase in traditionally prescribed paternal power; she may actually lose power with increased education. Relative education of husband and wife explains power differentials across power bases more clearly than does education of either spouse.

Family size: implicit policies and assumed psychological outcomes.

PIP: Negative stereotypes are attached to childless or 1-child couples and to only children. People choosing to have fewer than the socially predicted 2-child norm are responding to rational, individual norms instead of exterior normative pressures. Research has shown that only or widely spaced children benefit from adult contact during development. There is an inverse relationship between intelligence and family size. Only and 1st-born personality characteristics tend to contradict the negative stereotypes. Different reasons why couples choose to have children do not differentially determine the health of the children or the marriage.^ieng