Community partners' responses to items assessing stakeholder engagement: Cognitive response testing in measure development.

BACKGROUND: Despite recognition of the importance of stakeholder input into research, there is a lack of validated measures to assess how well constituencies are engaged and their input integrated into research design. Measurement theory suggests that a community engagement measure should use clear and simple language and capture important components of underlying constructs, resulting in a valid measure that is accessible to a broad audience. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this study was to evaluate how community members understood and responded to a measure of community engagement developed to be reliable, valid, easily administered, and broadly usable. METHOD: Cognitive response interviews were completed, during which participants described their reactions to items and how they processed them. Participants were asked to interpret item meaning, paraphrase items, and identify difficult or problematic terms and phrases, as well as provide any concerns with response options while responding to 16 of 32 survey items. RESULTS: The results of the cognitive response interviews of participants (N = 16) suggest concerns about plain language and literacy, clarity of question focus, and the lack of context clues to facilitate processing in response to items querying research experience. Minimal concerns were related to response options. Participants suggested changes in words and terms, as well as item structure. CONCLUSION: Qualitative research can improve the validity and accessibility of measures that assess stakeholder experience of community-engaged research. The findings suggest wording and sentence structure changes that improve ability to assess implementation of community engagement and its impact on research outcomes.

Factors Associated with Human Papillomavirus Vaccination Status at U.S. Colleges and Universities.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination rates remain low, but college student vaccination could offset this trend. This study identifies characteristics that could enhance HPV vaccination among U.S. college students. Data were from the National College Health Assessment II survey (fall 2012, N = 18,919). Univariate and logistic regression analyses were used to examine associations among demographic characteristics, college region and size, health status, receipt of health services, sexual health information, and HPV vaccination status. Among women, ethnic minorities, students attending schools in the South, those not receiving routine gynecological care in the past 12 months, and those unsure of when they last received gynecological care were less likely to report HPV vaccination. Among men, African Americans, students attending schools in the South and West, and those receiving sexually transmitted infection information were more likely to report vaccination. Data suggest that college health education can help to improve U.S. HPV vaccination rates. Campus health practitioners providing sexual health information and referrals are positioned to assist in this effort.

A Community Coalition to Address Cancer Disparities: Transitions, Successes and Challenges.

Community-based participatory (CBP) strategies are considered important to efforts to eliminate disparities. This paper outlines how the Program for the Elimination of Cancer Disparities (PECaD) uses CBP strategies as a part of a long-term cancer education, prevention, and control strategy in an urban community. Community partnerships have proved to be vital resources to inform PECaD's agenda and the research practice of academic partners. We begin with a description of PECaD governance and partnership structures. The paper then describes programmatic activities and successes, including efforts to monitor clinical trials, deployment of mammography resources, anti-smoking, and prostate and colorectal cancer (CRC) screening education. The influence of changes in funding priorities, preventive screening policy, and community partner development on the partnership process over time is discussed. PECaD community partners have grown and expanded beyond the Program's mission and developed additional partnerships, resulting in a reevaluation of relationships. The impact of these external and internal changes and pressures on the partnerships are noted. The evolution of the evaluation process and what it has revealed about needed improvements in PECaD activities and operations is presented. A summary of the lessons learned and their implications for CBP practice are provided.

Identifying key variables in African American adherence to colorectal cancer screening: the application of data mining.

BACKGROUND: This paper reports on an effort to identify a streamlined set of issues important for colorectal cancer communication and interventions with older African Americans. METHODS: African American (N = 1,021), 683 women and 338 men, 50 to 75 years completed a telephone survey addressing demographics, colorectal cancer screening, cancer attitudes, and cancer related cultural attitudes. Several data analytics methods were applied and evaluated. Among them, results from associative data mining identified key variables and logistic regression was used to confirm associations to screening adherence. RESULTS: Sets of co-occurring variables identified by associative data mining methods are extracted to further study differences between adherent and non-adherent groups. Logistic regressions suggested four variables were significantly associated with adherence: healthcare provider colonoscopy recommendation, prevention services at the place health care is usually sought, a history of colitis, and a history of polyps. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest a streamlined set of issues and concerns that may be used by providers advising patients or developing colorectal cancer intervention strategies for older African Americans. The data suggest the continued importance of healthcare provider recommendation to screen. It is important that providers give a clear recommendation to screen regardless of the test ultimately selected and should advise all patients that family history and the absence of symptoms or colitis do not eliminate the value of screening.

Discussing cancer: communication with African Americans.

Regular screening for colorectal cancer (CRC) facilitates earlier detection, lowers mortality, and may reduce incidence through detection and removal of pre-cancerous polyps. Optimizing health professional delivery of CRC screening information and recommendations can assist in reducing CRC disparity in the African-American community. This article presents qualitative data on African Americans' attitudes about health professional CRC communications based on the analysis of focus groups (N = 79). Using a social-ecological framework, colorectal cancer and professional communication themes are examined to offer four general and nine cancer-specific theoretically based and culturally appropriate strategies for improving health professional cancer communication with African Americans.

What can health communication science offer for ACA implementation? Five evidence-informed strategies for expanding Medicaid enrollment.

CONTEXT: Implementing the Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2014 will require effective enrollment and outreach efforts to previously uninsured individuals now eligible for coverage. METHODS: From 1996 to 2013, the Health Communication Research Laboratory conducted more than 40 original studies with more than 30,000 participants to learn how to improve the reach to and effectiveness of health information for low-income and racial/ethnic minority populations. We synthesized the findings from this body of research and used them to inform current challenges in implementing the ACA. FINDINGS: We found empirical support for 5 recommendations regarding partnerships, outreach, messages and messengers, life priorities of low-income individuals and families, and the information environment. We translated these into 12 action steps. CONCLUSIONS: Health communication science can inform the development and execution of strategies to increase the public's understanding of the ACA and to support the enrollment of eligible individuals into Medicaid or the Health Insurance Marketplace.

The utility of cancer-related cultural constructs to understand colorectal cancer screening among african americans.

BACKGROUND: Data suggest that colorectal cancer could be cut by approximately 60% if all people aged 50 years or older received regular screening. Studies have identified socio-cultural attitudes that might inform cancer education and screening promotion campaigns. This article applies item response theory (IRT) to a set of survey items selected to assess sociocultural attitudes in order to determine how current measures may affect what we know about how these attitudes affect colorectal cancer screening (CRCS). DESIGN AND METHODS: A survey of colorectal cancer screening, screening attitudes and cultural beliefs was administered to 1021 African Americans - 683 women and 338 men, ages 50 to 75. Eligibility criteria for participation included being born in the United States, self-identified African American male or female, age 50 to 75 years. The IRT analysis was performed on 655 individuals with complete data for the 43 observed variables. RESULTS: Twenty-nine items comprise the Multi-construct African American Cultural Survey (MAACS) that addresses seven cultural constructs: mistrust/distrust, privacy, ethnic identity, collectivism, empowerment, and male gender roles. The items provide adequate information about the attitudes of the population across most levels of the constructs assessed. Among the sociocultural variables considered, empowerment (OR=1.078; 95% CI: 1.008, 1.151) had the strongest association with CRCS adherence and privacy showed promise. CONCLUSIONS: The MAACS provides a fixed length questionnaire to assess African American CRCS attitudes, two new constructs that might assist in CRCS promotion, and a suggested focus for identification of additional constructs of interest. Significance for public healthThe 29 items of the Multi-construct African American Cultural Survey, identified through IRT analyses, can be used by community health researchers interested in determining the relevance of cultural constructs in the design and implementation of colorectal cancer screening programs in the African American community. With appropriate identification of sociocultural concerns, CRC health education materials and promotion strategies may avoid unnecessary conflicts with community beliefs and values. Avoiding conflicts between beliefs and values increases the likelihood that evidence and the recommended behaviours are considered for adoption. In addition, the short survey, as well as the broader item set, may be useful as a starting point for surveys to be used with other cancer sites. The application of IRT analysis to measures of cultural constructs to facilitate the development of accurate and efficient measures may prove useful in other racial/ethnic communities where cultural concerns may be relevant for health education and promotion.

African American parents' attitudes toward HPV vaccination.

This study sought to determine knowledge about human papillomaviruses (HPV), vaccination acceptability and intent to vaccinate, and describe the individual characteristics, and sociocultural attitudes that affect African American parents' intent to vaccinate their daughters. Two hundred African Americans completed self-administered surveys that assessed factors that may influence HPV vaccination behavior, HPV and cervical cancer knowledge and risk perception, cultural attitudes, and preferences for location and timing of vaccination. Eligibility criteria included men and women who had a daughter aged 9 to 17 years, whether the daughter had or had not been told that she had an HPV infection. Approximately two-thirds of the African American parents surveyed were aware of HPV and HPV vaccination. Responders were likely to be female, younger, employed, and to have social resources. They were also knowledgeable about HPV, but knowledge did not necessarily lead to vaccination. Among parents knowledgeable about HPV, vaccination status was significantly affected by whether a pediatrician had recommended the vaccine. There were no significant differences in demographic characteristics or sociocultural attitudes between the parents who had vaccinated their daughters and those who had not, although more of the parents who had vaccinated daughters were worried about STIs.

Selected sociocultural correlates of physical activity among African-American adults.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have identified several factors to be associated with physical activity (PA) among African-Americans, e.g., demographic and health-related characteristics. Formative studies suggest a link between sociocultural factors and PA among ethnic minorities; yet, it is unclear whether these factors play a role in PA among African-Americans. This paper explores the association of selected sociocultural characteristics with self-reported PA by gender among African-American adults, taking into account demographic and health-related characteristics. DESIGN: Data from the baseline survey of a colorectal cancer communication intervention trial were used. Participants included 446 African-American men and women, aged 45-75 years. Self-report data were collected on demographics, health-related characteristics, selected sociocultural constructs (e.g., ethnic identity, religiosity, collectivism, and medical mistrust), and PA. PA was categorized as meeting or not meeting recommended levels; recommended levels were defined as participating in vigorous PA for 20 minutes/day for at least three days/week or moderate PA for 30 minutes/day for at least five days/week or a minimum of 600 MET-minutes/week in at least five days. Chi-square and multivariate logistic regression models were used to characterize the association between the selected sociocultural constructs and PA among men and women, after adjusting for demographic and health-related characteristics. RESULTS: Most participants reported some PA but only 59% were found to be meeting recommended levels. Univariate analyses revealed that high collectivist attitudes were associated with meeting recommended PA (OR = 1.74), particularly for women (OR = 1.81). In multivariate analyses, high collectivist attitudes were significantly associated with meeting PA recommendations among men (OR = 1.87); while high religiosity and high collectivism were significant among women (OR = 1.87 and 1.85, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Few of the selected sociocultural characteristics were found to be associated with meeting recommended PA levels. Further study is needed to understand the association of these characteristics with PA among African-Americans.

Comparing the use of evidence and culture in targeted colorectal cancer communication for African Americans.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the effects (affective reactions, cognitive reactions and processing, perceived benefits and barriers and intent to screen) of targeted peripheral+evidential (PE) and peripheral+evidential+socio-cultural (PE+SC) colorectal cancer communications. METHODS: This study was a two-arm randomized control study of cancer communication effects on affective, cognitive processing, and behavioral outcomes over a 22-week intervention. There were 771 African American participants, 45-75 years, participating in the baseline survey related to CRC screening. Three follow-up interviews that assessed intervention effects on affective response to the publications, cognitive processing, and intent to obtain CRC screening were completed. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences between PE and PE+SC intervention groups for affect, cognitive processing or intent to screen. However, there were significant interactions effects on outcome variables. CONCLUSIONS: The advantages and disadvantages of PE+SC targeted cancer communications and implications of sex differences are considered. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: While there do not appear to be significant differences in behavioral outcomes when using PE and PE+SC strategies, there appear to be subtle differences in affective and cognitive processing outcomes related to medical suspicion and ethnic identity, particularly as it relates to gender.

African American's self-report patterns using the National Cancer Institute Colorectal Cancer Screening questionnaire.

Studies that examine colorectal cancer screening (CRCS) behaviors and correlates rely on self-reports of screening status. Self-reports of CRCS may be more biased than other self-reported cancer screening because of multiple screening options, tests may be offered in combination, and screening schedules differ for each test. The National Cancer Institute (NCI) sponsored the development of a core set of questions to measure self-reported CRCS that are consistent with current guidelines, the NCI Colorectal Cancer Screening questionnaire (NCI CRCS). Several studies support the validity and reliability of this measure; however, none of the existing studies have described African American (AA) responses to items that might be important to clinical decision making and research related to screening adherence. This paper addresses the limited descriptions of AA response patterns to items that comprise the NCI CRCS. The NCI CRCS was administered to 439 AAs 50 to 75 years, participating in the baseline survey of a Center for Excellence in Cancer Communication CRC study. The survey measured self-reported CRCS, factors associated with screening, and response patterns to items that might affect estimates of screening and screening adherence. AA participants reported on CRCS, the test used, and time interval since last screening. Except for queries related to month and year of screening, few participants reported uncertainty in response to items. Two thirds of participants reported receiving CRCS; however, less than half of participants were adherent to guidelines. Less than half reported healthcare provider recommendations to screen. AA participants responded to items on the NCI CRCS as developed. Until new strategies or items are available, interval since last screening appears to be the most appropriate item to estimate AA self-reported CRCS adherence. Strategies are needed to increase physician recommendation to screen.

Cancer information seeking among African Americans.

BACKGROUND: Relatively little is known about the factors that impact African Americans' health information seeking, a behavior relevant to cancer disparity. METHODS: In this article, we examine African American cancer information seeking using data from Cancer Information Service (CIS) call data (N = 32,834 African American callers). RESULTS: Compared to members of other racial groups, fewer African American callers sought information on prevention and psychosocial support. African American calls were likely to result in information on medical referrals and support services. CONCLUSIONS: Increased knowledge of CIS resources relevant to treatment and support may increase African American use of CIS.

Therapists' race and African American clients' reactions to therapy.

This study examines the posttherapy reactions and attitudes of 44 African American clients seen at a university clinic in a midwestern city. Clients were randomly assigned to European American or African American therapists for 10 sessions of interpersonal or problem solving therapy. Therapy attitudes and reactions were assessed through clients' ratings of how well they understood and accepted the goals of therapy, their ability to accept and make use of therapeutic interventions, and perceptions of therapeutic benefit. The impact of European American therapists' efforts to cope with racial differences through therapist-initiated discussion of race in the first session or no therapist-initiated discussion of race were examined. African American clients' ratings of therapy indicated that there was a relationship between therapists' race and the understanding and acceptance of therapeutic interventions and perceived benefit of therapy. Clients rated therapeutic understanding and acceptance higher when assigned to an African American therapist. Therapists' initiation of or noninitiation of discussions of race had no affect on ratings of therapy. The clinical implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).

Stigmatization, discrimination, and mental health: the impact of multiple identity status.

The authors present the empirical characteristics of the Experience of Discrimination Scale (EDS) using baseline data from the Center for Mental Health Services-funded, multisite Consumer Operated Services Project. Specific hypotheses focused on the influence of multiple identity status on reports of discrimination. Data indicated that discrimination caused by mental disability was associated with level of psychiatric symptoms and perceived social rejection as a result of mental illness, whereas discrimination for other reasons was associated with broader quality of life and social interaction indicators. The clinical and policy implications of findings are discussed.

Racism: perceptions of distress among African Americans.

Some scholars have suggested that stressful living conditions are a major source of mental disorder among African Americans (Krieger, 1999; Neighbors, 1990; Kessler & Neighbors, 1986). There has, however, been debate as to whether this higher level of distress is due to racism or the fact that African Americans are more often of lower socioeconomic status. Stressors that play a significant role in mental disorder might be expected to occur more frequently among African Americans than the general population. This paper attempts to provide empirical support for the notion that racism is a separate and unique source of stress for African Americans. Specifically, it was hypothesized that African Americans would report more experiences of (1) daily stress and (2) racism than other groups and (3) the impact of racial stress would be greater among African Americans. One hundred and fifty six participants completed the Daily Stress Inventory and the Experience of Discrimination questionnaire. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that African Americans reported higher impact of discrimination scores than European Americans. There were no gender or ethnicity differences in daily stress or the number of racial incidents reported. The implications of the data are discussed.

Intimate partner violence and women of color: a call for innovations.

In this commentary, we focus on violence against women of color. Although African American women experience higher rates of intimate partner homicide than White women, the cumulative rates for nonfatal intimate partner violence are similar and do not vary between urban and rural locations (though access to services may vary by location). Much of the research about intimate partner violence is based on women with low socioeconomic status and on interventions that were developed by and for White women. Current primary prevention strategies focus on violence that is perpetrated by strangers rather than their primary perpetrators--intimate partners. We recommend the development and rigorous evaluation of prevention strategies that incorporate the views of women of color and attention to primary prevention.