TREM2 deficiency aggravates renal injury by promoting macrophage apoptosis and polarization via the JAK-STAT pathway in mice.

The triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is an immune receptor that affects cellular phenotypes by modulating phagocytosis and metabolism, promoting cell survival, and counteracting inflammation. Its role in renal injury, in particular, unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) or ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI)-induced renal injury remains unclear. In our study, WT and Trem2-/- mice were employed to evaluate the role of TREM2 in renal macrophage infiltration and tissue injury after UUO. Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) from both mouse genotypes were cultured and polarized for in vitro experiments. Next, the effects of TREM2 on renal injury and macrophage polarization in IRI mice were also explored. We found that TREM2 expression was upregulated in the obstructed kidneys. TREM2 deficiency exacerbated renal inflammation and fibrosis 3 and 7 days after UUO, in association with reduced macrophage infiltration. Trem2-/- BMDM exhibited increased apoptosis and poorer survival compared with WT BMDM. Meanwhile, TREM2 deficiency augmented M1 and M2 polarization after UUO. Consistent with the in vivo observations, TREM2 deficiency led to increased polarization of BMDM towards the M1 proinflammatory phenotype. Mechanistically, TREM2 deficiency promoted M1 and M2 polarization via the JAK-STAT pathway in the presence of TGF-ß1, thereby affecting cell survival by regulating mTOR signaling. Furthermore, cyclocreatine supplementation alleviated cell death caused by TREM2 deficiency. Additionally, we found that TREM2 deficiency promoted renal injury, fibrosis, and macrophage polarization in IRI mice. The current data suggest that TREM2 deficiency aggravates renal injury by promoting macrophage apoptosis and polarization via the JAK-STAT pathway. These findings have implications for the role of TREM2 in the regulation of renal injury that justify further evaluation.

Role of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 in kidney diseases: A biomarker and potential therapeutic target.

ABSTRACT: Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM-1) is a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily. As an amplifier of the inflammatory response, TREM-1 is mainly involved in the production of inflammatory mediators and the regulation of cell survival. TREM-1 has been studied in infectious diseases and more recently in non-infectious disorders. More and more studies have shown that TREM-1 plays an important pathogenic role in kidney diseases. There is evidence that TREM-1 can not only be used as a biomarker for diagnosis of disease but also as a potential therapeutic target to guide the development of novel therapeutic agents for kidney disease. This review summarized molecular biology of TREM-1 and its signaling pathways as well as immune response in the progress of acute kidney injury, renal fibrosis, diabetic nephropathy, immune nephropathy, and renal cell carcinoma.

Negative Vaccination Strategies for Promotion of Transplant Tolerance.

Organ transplantation requires the use of immunosuppressive medications that lack antigen specificity, have many adverse side effects, and fail to induce immunological tolerance to the graft. The safe induction of tolerance to allogeneic tissue without compromising host responses to infection or enhancing the risk of malignant disease is a major goal in transplantation. One promising approach to achieve this goal is based on the concept of "negative vaccination." Vaccination (or actively acquired immunity) involves the presentation of both a foreign antigen and immunostimulatory adjuvant to the immune system to induce antigen-specific immunity. By contrast, negative vaccination, in the context of transplantation, involves the delivery of donor antigen before or after transplantation, together with a "negative adjuvant" to selectively inhibit the alloimmune response. This review will explore established and emerging negative vaccination strategies for promotion of organ or pancreatic islet transplant tolerance. These include donor regulatory myeloid cell infusion, which has progressed to early-phase clinical trials, apoptotic donor cell infusion that has advanced to nonhuman primate models, and novel nanoparticle antigen-delivery systems.

Regulatory dendritic cell therapy in organ transplantation.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Regulatory dendritic cells (DCregs; also 'tolerogenic DCs'), innate immune cells that regulate the alloimmune response, are a novel cellular therapy for organ transplantation. Preliminary results from early-phase clinical trials in live donor kidney and liver transplantation are promising. This follows many years of research elucidating mechanisms of action and utility of DCregs. Herein, we review early-phase clinical trial observations and recent advances in the production, modification, and future-trajectory of DCreg in organ transplantation. RECENT FINDINGS: Preclinical work has demonstrated the ability of adoptively transferred DCreg to abrogate ischemia-reperfusion injury and promote long-term allograft survival. Good Manufacturing Practice-grade DCregs have been generated in adequate numbers for early-phase trials of autologous DCregs in kidney transplantation and donor-derived DCreg in liver transplantation. These trials have demonstrated feasibility and safety, with preliminary evidence of an influence on host immune reactivity. In both kidney and liver transplantation, reduced effector CD8 + T-cells have been noted, together with other changes that may be conducive to reduced dependence on immunosuppressive therapy. SUMMARY: Substantial progress has been made in bringing DCreg to clinical testing in organ transplantation. Additional clinical and mechanistic studies are now needed to further explore and garner the full potential of DCreg in organ transplantation.

Multiple infusions of ex vivo-expanded regulatory T cells promote CD163+ myeloid cells and kidney allograft survival in non-lymphodepleted non-human primates.

Clinical verification of adoptively transferred regulatory T cell (Treg) efficacy in transplantation remains challenging. Here, we examined the influence of autologous ex vivo-expanded polyclonal Tregs on kidney graft survival in a clinically relevant non-human primate model. Peripheral blood Tregs were isolated and expanded using artificial antigen presenting cells. Immunosuppression was comprised of tapered tacrolimus and CTLA4 immunoglobulin, in five animals each without or with Treg infusions. Escalating Treg doses were administered 6, 10, 13, 16, 20, 23, 27 and 30 days after transplant. Infused Tregs were monitored for Treg signature, anti-apoptotic (Bcl-2) and proliferation (Ki67) marker expression. Treg infusions prolonged median graft survival time significantly from 35 to 70 days. Treg marker (Ki67 and Bcl-2) expression by infused Tregs diminished after their infusion but remained comparable to that of circulating native Tregs. No major changes in circulating donor-reactive T cell responses or total Treg percentages, or in graft-infiltrating T cell subsets were observed with Treg infusion. However, Treg infusion was associated with significant increases in CD163 expression by circulating HLA-DR+ myeloid cells and elevated levels of circulating soluble CD163. Further, graft-infiltrating CD163+ cells were increased with Treg infusion. Thus, multiple Treg infusions were associated with M2-like myeloid cell enhancement that may mediate immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and graft reparative effects.

CD4+ T cell-derived IL-22 enhances liver metastasis by promoting angiogenesis.

Metastasis is a cancer-related systemic disease and is responsible for the greatest mortality rate among cancer patients. Interestingly, the interaction between the immune system and cancer cells seems to play a key role in metastasis formation in the target organ. However, this complex network is only partially understood. We previously found that IL-22 produced by tissue resident iNKT17 cells promotes cancer cell extravasation, the early step of metastasis. Based on these data, we aimed here to decipher the role of IL-22 in the last step of metastasis formation. We found that IL-22 levels were increased in established metastatic sites in both human and mouse. We also found that Th22 cells were the key source of IL-22 in established metastasis sites, and that deletion of IL-22 in CD4+ T cells was protective in liver metastasis formation. Accordingly, the administration of a murine IL-22 neutralizing antibody in the establishment of metastasis formation significantly reduced the metastatic burden in a mouse model. Mechanistically, IL-22-producing Th22 cells promoted angiogenesis in established metastasis sites. In conclusion, our findings highlight that IL-22 is equally as important in contributing to metastasis formation at late metastatic stages, and thus, identify it as a novel therapeutic target in established metastasis.

Donor-derived regulatory dendritic cell infusion modulates effector CD8+ T cell and NK cell responses after liver transplantation.

Immune cell-based therapies are promising strategies to facilitate immunosuppression withdrawal after organ transplantation. Regulatory dendritic cells (DCreg) are innate immune cells that down-regulate alloimmune responses in preclinical models. Here, we performed clinical monitoring and comprehensive assessment of peripheral and allograft tissue immune cell populations in DCreg-infused live-donor liver transplant (LDLT) recipients up to 12 months (M) after transplant. Thirteen patients were given a single infusion of donor-derived DCreg 1 week before transplant (STUDY) and were compared with 40 propensity-matched standard-of-care (SOC) patients. Donor-derived DCreg infusion was well tolerated in all STUDY patients. There were no differences in postoperative complications or biopsy-confirmed acute rejection compared with SOC patients up to 12M. DCreg administration was associated with lower frequencies of effector T-bet+Eomes+CD8+ T cells and CD16bright natural killer (NK) cells and an increase in putative tolerogenic CD141+CD163+ DCs compared with SOC at 12M. Antidonor proliferative capacity of interferon-γ+ (IFN-γ+) CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was lower compared with antithird party responses in STUDY participants, but not in SOC patients, at 12M. In addition, lower circulating concentrations of interleukin-12p40 (IL-12p40), IFN-γ, and CXCL10 were detected in STUDY participants compared with SOC patients at 12M. Analysis of 12M allograft biopsies revealed lower frequencies of graft-infiltrating CD8+ T cells, as well as attenuation of cytolytic TH1 effector genes and pathways among intragraft CD8+ T cells and NK cells, in DCreg-infused patients. These reductions may be conducive to reduced dependence on immunosuppressive drug therapy or immunosuppression withdrawal.

IL-22BP controls the progression of liver metastasis in colorectal cancer.

Background: The immune system plays a pivotal role in cancer progression. Interleukin 22 binding protein (IL-22BP), a natural antagonist of the cytokine interleukin 22 (IL-22) has been shown to control the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the role of IL-22BP in the process of metastasis formation remains unknown. Methods: We used two different murine in vivo metastasis models using the MC38 and LLC cancer cell lines and studied lung and liver metastasis formation after intracaecal or intrasplenic injection of cancer cells. Furthermore, IL22BP expression was measured in a clinical cohort of CRC patients and correlated with metastatic tumor stages. Results: Our data indicate that low levels of IL-22BP are associated with advanced (metastatic) tumor stages in colorectal cancer. Using two different murine in vivo models we show that IL-22BP indeed controls the progression of liver but not lung metastasis in mice. Conclusions: We here demonstrate a crucial role of IL-22BP in controlling metastasis progression. Thus, IL-22 might represent a future therapeutic target against the progression of metastatic CRC.

Tolerogenic dendritic cells protect against acute kidney injury.

Ischemia reperfusion injury is a common precipitant of acute kidney injury that occurs following disrupted perfusion to the kidney. This includes blood loss and hemodynamic shock, as well as during retrieval for deceased donor kidney transplantation. Acute kidney injury is associated with adverse long-term clinical outcomes and requires effective interventions that can modify the disease process. Immunomodulatory cell therapies such as tolerogenic dendritic cells remain a promising tool, and here we tested the hypothesis that adoptively transferred tolerogenic dendritic cells can limit kidney injury. The phenotypic and genomic signatures of bone marrow-derived syngeneic or allogeneic, Vitamin-D3/IL-10-conditioned tolerogenic dendritic cells were assessed. These cells were characterized by high PD-L1:CD86, elevated IL-10, restricted IL-12p70 secretion and a suppressed transcriptomic inflammatory profile. When infused systemically, these cells successfully abrogated kidney injury without modifying infiltrating inflammatory cell populations. They also provided protection against ischemia reperfusion injury in mice pre-treated with liposomal clodronate, suggesting the process was regulated by live, rather than reprocessed cells. Co-culture experiments and spatial transcriptomic analysis confirmed reduced kidney tubular epithelial cell injury. Thus, our data provide strong evidence that peri-operatively administered tolerogenic dendritic cells have the ability to protect against acute kidney injury and warrants further exploration as a therapeutic option. This technology may provide a clinical advantage for bench-to-bedside translation to affect patient outcomes.

Manufacturing and validation of Good Manufacturing Practice-compliant regulatory dendritic cells for infusion into organ transplant recipients.

BACKGROUND AIMS: Regulatory (or "tolerogenic") dendritic cells (DCregs) are a highly promising, innovative cell therapy for the induction or restoration of antigen-specific tolerance in immune-mediated inflammatory disorders. These conditions include organ allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease following bone marrow transplantation and various autoimmune disorders. DCregs generated for adoptive transfer have potential to reduce patients' dependence on non-specific immunosuppressive drugs that can induce serious side effects and enhance the risk of infection and certain types of cancer. Here, our aim was to provide a detailed account of our experience manufacturing and validating comparatively large numbers of Good Manufacturing Practice-grade DCregs for systemic (intravenous) infusion into 28 organ (liver) transplant recipients and to discuss factors that influence the satisfaction of release criteria and attainment of target cell numbers. RESULTS: DCregs were generated in granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor and interleukin (IL)-4 from elutriated monocyte fractions isolated from non-mobilized leukapheresis products of consenting healthy adult prospective liver transplant donors. Vitamin D3 was added on day 0 and 4 and IL-10 on day 4 during the 7-day culture period. Release and post-release criteria included cell viability, purity, phenotype, sterility and functional assessment. The overall conversion rate of monocytes to DCregs was 28 ± 8.2%, with 94 ± 5.1% product viability. The mean cell surface T-cell co-inhibitory to co-stimulatory molecule (programmed death ligand-1:CD86) mean fluorescence intensity ratio was 3.9 ± 2.2, and the mean ratio of anti-inflammatory:pro-inflammatory cytokine product (IL-10:IL-12p70) secreted upon CD40 ligation was 60 ± 63 (median = 40). The mean total number of DCregs generated from a single leukapheresis product (n = 25 donors) and from two leukapheresis products (n = 3 donors) was 489 ± 223 × 106 (n = 28). The mean total number of DCregs infused was 5.9 ± 2.8 × 106 per kg body weight. DCreg numbers within a target cell range of 2.5-10 × 106/kg were achieved for 25 of 27 (92.6%) of products generated. CONCLUSIONS: High-purity DCregs meeting a range of quality criteria were readily generated from circulating blood monocytes under Good Manufacturing Practice conditions to meet target cell numbers for infusion into prospective organ transplant recipients.

Regulatory T lymphocytes as a therapy for ischemic stroke.

Unrestrained excessive inflammatory responses exacerbate ischemic brain injury and impede post-stroke brain recovery. CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells play important immunosuppressive roles to curtail inflammatory responses and regain immune homeostasis after stroke. Accumulating evidence confirms that Treg cells are neuroprotective at the acute stage after stroke and promote brain repair at the chronic phases. The beneficial effects of Treg cells are mediated by diverse mechanisms involving cell-cell interactions and soluble factor release. Multiple types of cells, including both immune cells and non-immune CNS cells, have been identified to be cellular targets of Treg cells. In this review, we summarize recent findings regarding the function of Treg cells in ischemic stroke and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. The protective and reparative properties of Treg cells endorse them as good candidates for immune therapy. Strategies that boost the numbers and functions of Treg cells have been actively developing in the fields of transplantation and autoimmune diseases. We discuss the approaches for Treg cell expansion that have been tested in stroke models. The application of these approaches to stroke patients may bring new hope for stroke treatments.

Neuroprotection against ischemic stroke requires a specific class of early responder T cells in mice.

Immunomodulation holds therapeutic promise against brain injuries, but leveraging this approach requires a precise understanding of mechanisms. We report that CD8+CD122+CD49dlo T regulatory-like cells (CD8+ TRLs) are among the earliest lymphocytes to infiltrate mouse brains after ischemic stroke and temper inflammation; they also confer neuroprotection. TRL depletion worsened stroke outcomes, an effect reversed by CD8+ TRL reconstitution. The CXCR3/CXCL10 axis served as the brain-homing mechanism for CD8+ TRLs. Upon brain entry, CD8+ TRLs were reprogrammed to upregulate leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) receptor, epidermal growth factor-like transforming growth factor (ETGF), and interleukin 10 (IL-10). LIF/LIF receptor interactions induced ETGF and IL-10 production in CD8+ TRLs. While IL-10 induction was important for the antiinflammatory effects of CD8+ TRLs, ETGF provided direct neuroprotection. Poststroke intravenous transfer of CD8+ TRLs reduced infarction, promoting long-term neurological recovery in young males or aged mice of both sexes. Thus, these unique CD8+ TRLs serve as early responders to rally defenses against stroke, offering fresh perspectives for clinical translation.

Tacrolimus before CTLA4Ig and rapamycin promotes vascularized composite allograft survival in MGH miniature swine.

BACKGROUND: We evaluated the outcome of vertical rectus abdominus myocutaneous flap (VRAM) allotransplantation in a mini-pig model, using a combined co-stimulation blockade (Co-SB) and mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibition (mTORi)-based regimen, with or without preceding calcineurin inhibition (CNI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: VRAM allotransplants were performed between SLA-mismatched MGH miniature swine. Group A (n = 2) was treated continuously with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin from day -1 in combination with the Co-SB agent cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4-Ig (CTLA4-Ig) from post-operative day (POD) 0. In group B (n = 3), animals received tacrolimus daily from POD 0 to POD 13, followed by rapamycin daily from POD 7 and CTLA4-Ig weekly from POD 7-28. Graft rejection was determined by Banff criteria and host cellular and humoral immunity monitored. RESULTS: In group A, allografts developed grade-I acute rejection by POD 2 and POD 7, and reached grade-IV by POD 17 and POD 20, respectively. By contrast, in group B, two allografts demonstrated grade-I rejection on POD 30 and grade-IV on POD 74, while the third exhibited grade-I rejection starting on POD 50, though this animal had to be euthanized on POD 58 due to Pneumocystis jirovecii infection. Time-to-event incidence of grade-I rejection was significantly lower in group A compared to group B. During the first 3 weeks post-transplant, no significant differences in anti-donor immunity were observed between the groups. CONCLUSION: A short course of CNI, followed by combined Co-SB and mTORi significantly delays acute rejection of VRAM allografts in SLA-mismatched miniature swine.

Activated-memory T cells influence naïve T cell fate: a noncytotoxic function of human CD8 T cells.

T cells are endowed with the capacity to sense their environment including other T cells around them. They do so to set their numbers and activation thresholds. This form of regulation has been well-studied within a given T cell population - i.e., within the naïve or memory pool; however, less is known about the cross-talk between T cell subsets. Here, we tested whether memory T cells interact with and influence surrounding naïve T cells. We report that human naïve CD8 T cells (TN) undergo phenotypic and transcriptional changes in the presence of autologous activated-memory CD8 T cells (TMem). Following in vitro co-culture with activated central memory cells (TCM), ~3% of the TN acquired activation/memory canonical markers (CD45RO and CD95) in an MHC-I dependent-fashion. Using scRNA-seq, we also observed that ~3% of the TN acquired an activated/memory signature, while ~84% developed a unique activated transcriptional profile hybrid between naïve and activated memory. Pseudotime trajectory analysis provided further evidence that TN with an activated/memory or hybrid phenotype were derived from TN. Our data reveal a non-cytotoxic function of TMem with potential to activate autologous TN into the activated/memory pool. These findings may have implications for host-protection and autoimmunity that arises after vaccination, infection or transplantation.

Non-human Primate Regulatory T Cells and Their Assessment as Cellular Therapeutics in Preclinical Transplantation Models.

Non-human primates (NHP) are an important resource for addressing key issues regarding the immunobiology of regulatory T cells (Treg), their in vivo manipulation and the translation of adoptive Treg therapy to clinical application. In addition to their phenotypic and functional characterization, particularly in cynomolgus and rhesus macaques, NHP Treg have been isolated and expanded successfully ex vivo. Their numbers can be enhanced in vivo by administration of IL-2 and other cytokines. Both polyclonal and donor antigen (Ag) alloreactive NHP Treg have been expanded ex vivo and their potential to improve long-term outcomes in organ transplantation assessed following their adoptive transfer in combination with various cytoreductive, immunosuppressive and "Treg permissive" agents. In addition, important insights have been gained into the in vivo fate/biodistribution, functional stability, replicative capacity and longevity of adoptively-transferred Treg in monkeys. We discuss current knowledge of NHP Treg immunobiology, methods for their in vivo expansion and functional validation, and results obtained testing their safety and efficacy in organ and pancreatic islet transplantation models. We compare and contrast results obtained in NHP and mice and also consider prospects for future, clinically relevant studies in NHP aimed at improved understanding of Treg biology, and innovative approaches to promote and evaluate their therapeutic potential.

A Comparison of Ex Vivo Expanded Human Regulatory T Cells Using Allogeneic Stimulated B Cells or Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells.

Alloreactive regulatory T cells (arTregs) are more potent than polyclonal Tregs at suppressing immune responses to transplant antigens. Human arTregs can be expanded with allogeneic CD40L-stimulated B cells (sBcs) or stimulated-matured monocyte-derived dendritic cells (sDCs). Here, we compared the expansion efficiency and properties of arTregs stimulated ex vivo using these two types of antigen-presenting cells. Compared to sBcs, sDCs stimulated Tregs to expand two times more in number. The superior expansion-inducing capacity of sDCs correlated with their higher expression of CD80, CD86, and T cell-attracting chemokines. sBc- and sDC-arTregs expressed comparable levels of FOXP3, HELIOS, CD25, CD27, and CD62L, demethylated FOXP3 enhancer and in vitro suppressive function. sBc- and sDCs-arTregs had similar gene expression profiles that were distinct from primary Tregs. sBc- and sDC-arTregs exhibited similar low frequencies of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-17A-producing cells, and the cytokine-producing arTregs expressed high levels of FOXP3. Almost all sBc- and sDC-arTregs expressed CXCR3, which may enable them traffic to inflammatory sites. Thus, sDCs-arTregs that expand more readily, are phenotypically similar to sBc-arTregs, supporting sDCs as a viable alternative for arTreg production for clinical evaluation.

Dendritic Cell-Mediated Regulation of Liver Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury and Liver Transplant Rejection.

Liver allograft recipients are more likely to develop transplantation tolerance than those that receive other types of organ graft. Experimental studies suggest that immune cells and other non-parenchymal cells in the unique liver microenvironment play critical roles in promoting liver tolerogenicity. Of these, liver interstitial dendritic cells (DCs) are heterogeneous, innate immune cells that appear to play pivotal roles in the instigation, integration and regulation of inflammatory responses after liver transplantation. Interstitial liver DCs (recruited in situ or derived from circulating precursors) have been implicated in regulation of both ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) and anti-donor immunity. Thus, livers transplanted from mice constitutively lacking DCs into syngeneic, wild-type recipients, display increased tissue injury, indicating a protective role of liver-resident donor DCs against transplant IRI. Also, donor DC depletion before transplant prevents mouse spontaneous liver allograft tolerance across major histocompatibility complex (MHC) barriers. On the other hand, mouse liver graft-infiltrating host DCs that acquire donor MHC antigen via "cross-dressing", regulate anti-donor T cell reactivity in association with exhaustion of graft-infiltrating T cells and promote allograft tolerance. In an early phase clinical trial, infusion of donor-derived regulatory DCs (DCreg) before living donor liver transplantation can induce alterations in host T cell populations that may be conducive to attenuation of anti-donor immune reactivity. We discuss the role of DCs in regulation of warm and liver transplant IRI and the induction of liver allograft tolerance. We also address design of cell therapies using DCreg to reduce the immunosuppressive drug burden and promote clinical liver allograft tolerance.

Treg cell-derived osteopontin promotes microglia-mediated white matter repair after ischemic stroke.

The precise mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of regulatory T (Treg) cells on long-term tissue repair remain elusive. Here, using single-cell RNA sequencing and flow cytometry, we found that Treg cells infiltrated the brain 1 to 5 weeks after experimental stroke in mice. Selective depletion of Treg cells diminished oligodendrogenesis, white matter repair, and functional recovery after stroke. Transcriptomic analyses revealed potent immunomodulatory effects of brain-infiltrating Treg cells on other immune cells, including monocyte-lineage cells. Microglia depletion, but not T cell lymphopenia, mitigated the beneficial effects of transferred Treg cells on white matter regeneration. Mechanistically, Treg cell-derived osteopontin acted through integrin receptors on microglia to enhance microglial reparative activity, consequently promoting oligodendrogenesis and white matter repair. Increasing Treg cell numbers by delivering IL-2:IL-2 antibody complexes after stroke improved white matter integrity and rescued neurological functions over the long term. These findings reveal Treg cells as a neurorestorative target for stroke recovery.

Myeloid and Mesenchymal Stem Cell Therapies for Solid Organ Transplant Tolerance.

Transplantation is now performed globally as a routine procedure. However, the increased demand for donor organs and consequent expansion of donor criteria has created an imperative to maximize the quality of these gains. The goal is to balance preservation of allograft function against patient quality-of-life, despite exposure to long-term immunosuppression. Elimination of immunosuppressive therapy to avoid drug toxicity, with concurrent acceptance of the allograft-so-called operational tolerance-has proven elusive. The lack of recent advances in immunomodulatory drug development, together with advances in immunotherapy in oncology, has prompted interest in cell-based therapies to control the alloimmune response. Extensive experimental work in animals has characterized regulatory immune cell populations that can induce and maintain tolerance, demonstrating that their adoptive transfer can promote donor-specific tolerance. An extension of this large body of work has resulted in protocols for manufacture, as well as early-phase safety and feasibility trials for many regulatory cell types. Despite the excitement generated by early clinical trials in autoimmune diseases and organ transplantation, there is as yet no clinically validated, approved regulatory cell therapy for transplantation. In this review, we summarize recent advances in this field, with a focus on myeloid and mesenchymal cell therapies, including current understanding of the mechanisms of action of regulatory immune cells, and clinical trials in organ transplantation using these cells as therapeutics.