ABSTRACT
The crabapple mangrove tree, Sonneratia caseolaris Linn. (Family: Sonneratiaceae), is one of the foreshore plants found in estuarine and tidal creek areas and mangrove forests. Bark and fruit extracts from this plant have previously been shown to have an anti-oxidative or cytotoxic effect, whereas flower extracts of this plant exhibited an antimicrobial activity against some bacteria. According to the traditional folklore, it is medicinally used as an astringent and antiseptic. Hence, this investigation was carried out on the extract of the leaves, pneumatophore and different parts of the flower or fruit (stamen, calyx, meat of fruit, persistent calyx of fruit and seeds) for antibacterial activity using the broth microdilution method. The antibacterial activity was evaluated against five antibiotic-sensitive species (three Gram-positive and two Gram-negative bacteria) and six drug-resistant species (Gram-positive i.e. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus faecium and Gram-negative i.e. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-Escherichia coli, multidrug-resistant-Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acenetobacter baumannii). The methanol extracts from all tested parts of the crabapple mangrove tree exhibited antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, but was mainly a bactericidal against the Gram-negative bacteria, including the multidrug-resistant strains, when compared with only bacteriostatic on the Gram-positive bacteria. Using Soxhlet apparatus, the extracts obtained by sequential extraction with hexane, dichloromethane and ethyl acetate revealed no discernable antibacterial activity and only slightly, if at all, reduced the antibacterial activity of the subsequently obtained methanol extract. Therefore, the active antibacterial compounds of the crabapple mangrove tree should have a rather polar structure.
ABSTRACT
A cluster of acute gastroenteritis among nursing students was noticed on 13th September 2005. Between 13th and 17th September 2005, a retrospective cohort study was then conducted to identify the most likely cause of gastroenteritis at a nursing college in Bangkok, Thailand. Self-administered questionnaires, interviews, environmental investigations, and rectal swabs from all participants were carried out. In the investigation, 98.9% female nursing students were investigated and had completed the questionnaire, 49.4% of the participants were diagnosed to have acute gastroenteritis. The predominant symptoms were watery diarrhoea (90.8%) and abdominal cramps (71.3%). Of 28.9% of rectal swab isolates were identified as Vibrio parahaemolyticus O4:K55 (40.4%), Salmonella spp. (19.2%), Vibrio cholerae non O1/non O139/non O141 (11.5%), Aeromonas trota (3.9%), Vibrio alginolyticus (1.9%) and other co-infections (23.1%). The tdh gene was identified from all V. parahaemolyticus using multiplex PCR. The implicated food risk factor for gastroenteritis was boiled egg (adjusted prevalence rate ratio; PR=1.9, 95% CI, 1.04-3.79). However the bitter melon soup was not significantly associated for gastroenteritis (adjusted PR=1.3, 95% CI, 0.98-1.82). The population attributable fraction analysis indicated that boiled eggs item was an implicated food risk for this outbreak (PAF=45.8%). Vibrio parahaemolyticus O4:K55 was identified as a major causative agent for gastroenteritis in which the contaminated boiled eggs was a vehicle in this outbreak. Cross-contamination control should be emphasized in food operation plans among institutes.
