International study of childhood leukemia in residences near electrical transformer rooms.

OBJECTIVES: New epidemiologic approaches are needed to reduce the scientific uncertainty surrounding the association between extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) and childhood leukemia. While most previous studies focused on power lines, the Transformer Exposure study sought to assess this association using a multi-country study of children who had lived in buildings with built-in electrical transformers. ELF-MF in apartments above built-in transformers can be 5 times higher than in other apartments in the same building. This novel study design aimed to maximize the inclusion of highly exposed children while minimising the potential for selection bias. METHODS: We assessed associations between residential proximity to transformers and risk of childhood leukemia using registry based matched case-control data collected in five countries. Exposure was based on the location of the subject's apartment relative to the transformer, coded as high (above or adjacent to transformer), intermediate (same floor as apartments in high category), or unexposed (other apartments). Relative risk (RR) for childhood leukemia was estimated using conditional logistic and mixed logistic regression with a random effect for case-control set. RESULTS: Data pooling across countries yielded 16 intermediate and 3 highly exposed cases. RRs were 1.0 (95% CI: 0.5, 1.9) for intermediate and 1.1 (95% CI: 0.3, 3.8) for high exposure in the conditional logistic model. In the mixed logistic model, RRs were 1.4 (95% CI: 0.8, 2.5) for intermediate and 1.3 (95% CI: 0.4, 4.4) for high. Data of the most influential country showed RRs of 1.1 (95% CI: 0.5, 2.4) and 1.7 (95% CI: 0.4, 7.2) for intermediate (8 cases) and high (2 cases) exposure. DISCUSSION: Overall, evidence for an elevated risk was weak. However, small numbers and wide confidence intervals preclude strong conclusions and a risk of the magnitude observed in power line studies cannot be excluded.

Radiofrequency personal exposimetry during outdoor entertainment of young adults: a case study.

Radiofrequency (RF) exposure has grown substantially over time in the public area. Personal dosimetry measurements are intended to estimate how human RF exposure relates to exposure limits that do not pose a health risk. For our case study, an outdoor festival was chosen to assess realistic RF exposure of young adults during their entertainment. Band-selective RF exposure-sorted along 2G-4G uplinks and downlinks, 5G and Wi-Fi bands-was evaluated. Electric field strength data subsets were classified on the basis of activities as well as crowd density. 2G contributed the most to the overall RF exposure. Highest RF exposure was associated with attendance in a concert. In moderately crowded situations, RF exposure was higher than in the most crowded ones. However, the total measured electric field values were higher than in other outdoor environment, but still far below the national and international directives of regulatory RF-EMF exposure limits.

Assessment of Inflammation in 3D Reconstructed Human Skin Exposed to Combined Exposure to Ultraviolet and Wi-Fi Radiation.

In the human environment, the increasing exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation, especially that emitted by wireless devices, could be absorbed in the body. Recently, mobile and emerging wireless technologies (UMTS, DECT, LTE, and Wi-Fi) have been using higher frequencies than 2G GSM systems (900/1800 MHz), which means that most of the circulating RF currents are absorbed into the skin and the superficial soft tissue. The harmful genotoxic, cytotoxic, and mutagenic effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on the skin are well-known. This study aimed at investigating whether 2422 MHz (Wi-Fi) RF exposure combined with UV radiation in different sequences has any effect on the inflammation process in the skin. In vitro experiments examined the inflammation process by cytokines (IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8) and MMP-1 enzyme secretion in a 3D full-thickness human skin model. In the first study, UV exposure was immediately followed by RF exposure to measure the potential additive effects, while in the second study, the possible protective phenomenon (i.e., adaptive response) was investigated when adaptive RF exposure was challenged by UV radiation. Our results suggest that 2422 MHz Wi-Fi exposure slightly, not significantly increased cytokine concentrations of the prior UV exposure. We could not detect the adaptive response phenomenon.

An Implantable Magneto-Responsive Poly(aspartamide) Based Electrospun Scaffold for Hyperthermia Treatment.

When exposed to an alternating magnetic field, superparamagnetic nanoparticles can elicit the required hyperthermic effect while also being excellent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. Their main drawback is that they diffuse out of the area of interest in one or two days, thus preventing a continuous application during the typical several-cycle multi-week treatment. To solve this issue, our aim was to synthesise an implantable, biodegradable membrane infused with magnetite that enabled long-term treatment while having adequate MRI contrast and hyperthermic capabilities. To immobilise the nanoparticles inside the scaffold, they were synthesised inside hydrogel fibres. First, polysuccinimide (PSI) fibres were produced by electrospinning and crosslinked, and then, magnetitc iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) were synthesised inside and in-between the fibres of the hydrogel membranes with the well-known co-precipitation method. The attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) investigation proved the success of the chemical synthesis and the presence of iron oxide, and the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) study revealed their superparamagnetic property. The magnetic hyperthermia efficiency of the samples was significant. The given alternating current (AC) magnetic field could induce a temperature rise of 5 °C (from 37 °C to 42 °C) in less than 2 min even for five quick heat-cool cycles or for five consecutive days without considerable heat generation loss in the samples. Short-term (1 day and 7 day) biocompatibility, biodegradability and MRI contrast capability were investigated in vivo on Wistar rats. The results showed excellent MRI contrast and minimal acute inflammation.

An idiographic approach to Idiopathic Environmental Intolerance attributed to Electromagnetic Fields (IEI-EMF) Part II. Ecological momentary assessment of three individuals with severe IEI-EMF.

IEI-EMF refers to a self-reported sensitivity characterized by attribution of non-specific physical symptoms to exposure to weak EMFs. The majority of empirical results do not support the existence of a causal relationship between EMF and IEI-EMF. However, this conclusion was drawn from environmental and experimental studies that are not without methodological limitations. In the current study, as part of a complex biopsychosocial approach, an ecological momentary assessment (EMA) protocol was applied for the investigation of the temporal relationship between actual radio frequency (RF) EMF exposure and IEI-EMF, at the individual level. Continuous measurement of autonomic variables by holter electrocardiogram (ECG) monitors and the ambient RF EMF by personal dosimeters, as well as repeated (8/day) paper-and-pencil assessments of momentary internal states (symptoms, mood, perceived EMF intensity) and situational factors was conducted for 21 days with the participation of three individuals with severe IEI-EMF. Temporal relationships were examined by time series analyses. For two participants, the results did not support the association between the suspected EMF frequency range(s) and symptom reports. Nevertheless, the results revealed a reverse association with respect to another frequency range (GSM900 downlink), which contradicts the IEI-EMF condition. Autonomic activation related findings were inconsistent. For the third participant, the claimed association was partly supported, both for symptom reports and autonomic reactions (UMTS downlink, total RF; RMS values). The findings of this study suggest that IEI-EMF does not have a unitary aetiology. For certain individuals, a biophysical background cannot be excluded, whereas no such underlying factor appears to be at work for others. EMA is a useful method for the investigation of the aetiology of IEI-EMF.

Evaluation of Inflammation by Cytokine Production Following Combined Exposure to Ultraviolet and Radiofrequency Radiation of Mobile Phones on 3D Reconstructed Human Skin In Vitro.

The absorption of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) emitted by wireless devices leads to a high specific absorption rate in the skin. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation can induce several damages to the skin. The aim of this study was to examine whether combined, consecutive exposure to solar UV radiation and 1950 MHz RF exposure of third generation (3G) mobile system have any effect on inflammation processes in the skin. Under in vitro experiments, the inflammation process was examined by cytokines (IL-1α, IL-6, and IL-8) and MMP-1 enzyme secretion on 3D full thickness human skin model. The RF exposure was applied before or after UV irradiation, in order to study either the possible cooperative or protective effects of exposure to RF and UV. We did not find changes in cytokines due to exposure to RF alone. The RF exposure did not enhance the effects of UV radiation. There was a statistically not-significant decrease in cytokines when the skin tissues were pre-exposed to RF before being exposed to 4 standard erythemal dose (SED) UV compared to UV exposure alone. We found that RF exposure reduced the previously UV-treated MMP-1 enzyme concentration. This study might support the evaluation of the effects on the skin exposed to microwave radiation of 5G mobile technology.

Genotoxic effects of intermediate frequency magnetic fields on blood leukocytes in vitro.

The widespread presence of electromagnetic sources in daily life has initiated several studies on the effects of radiofrequency and power frequency fields. Only few investigations on the genotoxic effects of exposure to intermediate frequency magnetic fields (IF-MF) have been done so far. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate possible genotoxic effects of exposure to 123.90 kHz and 250.80 kHz IF-MF on canine and human blood. Blood was exposed to IF-MF at 630 A/m (0.79 mT) and 80 A/m (0.10 m T) with exposure durations of 1-5 h (hourly), 20 and 24 h. Cylindrically divided Petri dish system was developed for in vitro exposures where different induced current could be achieved in the samples at the same magnetic flux density level. For the assessment of genotoxicity the alkaline comet assay was applied. We detected a statistically significant increase in DNA damage only following 20 h exposure to IF-MF.

Short-term radiofrequency exposure from new generation mobile phones reduces EEG alpha power with no effects on cognitive performance.

Although mobile phone (MP) use has been steadily increasing in the last decades and similar positive trends are expected for the near future, systematic investigations on neurophysiological and cognitive effects caused by recently developed technological standards for MPs are scarcely available. Here, we investigated the effects of radiofrequency (RF) fields emitted by new-generation mobile technologies, specifically, Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) and Long-Term Evolution (LTE), on intrinsic scalp EEG activity in the alpha band (8-12 Hz) and cognitive performance in the Stroop test. The study involved 60 healthy, young-adult university students (34 for UMTS and 26 for LTE) with double-blind administration of Real and Sham exposure in separate sessions. EEG was recorded before, during and after RF exposure, and Stroop performance was assessed before and after EEG recording. Both RF exposure types caused a notable decrease in the alpha power over the whole scalp that persisted even after the cessation of the exposure, whereas no effects were found on any aspects of performance in the Stroop test. The results imply that the brain networks underlying global alpha oscillations might require minor reconfiguration to adapt to the local biophysical changes caused by focal RF exposure mimicking MP use.

The Effect of a Single 30-Min Long Term Evolution Mobile Phone-Like Exposure on Thermal Pain Threshold of Young Healthy Volunteers.

Although the majority of mobile phone (MP) users do not attribute adverse effects on health or well-being to MP-emitted radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs), the exponential increase in the number of RF devices necessitates continuing research aimed at the objective investigation of such concerns. Here we investigated the effects of acute exposure from Long Term Evolution (LTE) MP EMFs on thermal pain threshold in healthy young adults. We use a protocol that was validated in a previous study in a capsaicin-induced hyperalgesia model and was also successfully used to show that exposure from an RF source mimicking a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) MP led to mildly stronger desensitization to repeated noxious thermal stimulation relative to the sham condition. Using the same experimental design, we did not find any effects of LTE exposure on thermal pain threshold. The present results, contrary to previous evidence obtained with the UMTS modulation, are likely to originate from placebo/nocebo effects and are unrelated to the brief acute LTE EMF exposure itself. The fact that this is dissimilar to our previous results on UMTS exposure implies that RF modulations might differentially affect pain perception and points to the necessity of further research on the topic.

No effect of a pulsed magnetic field on induced ischemic muscle pain. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.

Empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of pulsed (electro)magnetic field (PEMF) therapy on chronic and acute pain is equivocal. In the current randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled experiment, impact of a commercially available whole-body PEMF mat on acute ischemic muscle pain induced in the forearm was studied with the participation of 70 healthy volunteers. The device emitted a pulsed magnetic field with a repetition frequency of 2.05Hz and a maximum flux density of 25.3µT (rms). The highest dB/dt was 48mT/s. No differences between the groups receiving actual and sham PEMF were found in terms of pain threshold, pain tolerance, heart rate, and perceived decrease of pain. However, participants' expectation concerning the effectiveness of the intervention improved pain tolerance and affected perceived change of pain. In conclusion, the used PEMF device had no specific effect on acute ischemic muscle pain, while the contribution of the placebo effect was considerable.

Retrospective estimation of the electric and magnetic field exposure conditions in in vitro experimental reports reveal considerable potential for uncertainty.

Experiments on cell cultures exposed to extremely low frequency (ELF, 3-300 Hz) magnetic fields are often subject to multiple sources of uncertainty associated with specific electric and magnetic field exposure conditions. Here we systemically quantify these uncertainties based on exposure conditions described in a group of bioelectromagnetic experimental reports for a representative sampling of the existing literature. The resulting uncertainties, stemming from insufficient, ambiguous, or erroneous description, design, implementation, or validation of the experimental methods and systems, were often substantial enough to potentially make any successful reproduction of the original experimental conditions difficult or impossible. Without making any assumption about the true biological relevance of ELF electric and magnetic fields, these findings suggest another contributing factor which may add to the overall variability and irreproducibility traditionally associated with experimental results of in vitro exposures to low-level ELF magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics. 39:231-243, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Review of Studies Concerning Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Exposure Assessment in Europe: Low Frequency Fields (50 Hz-100 kHz).

We aimed to review the findings of exposure assessment studies done in European countries on the exposure of the general public to low frequency electric and magnetic fields (EMFs) of various frequencies. The study shows that outdoor average extremely low frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MF) in public areas in urban environments range between 0.05 and 0.2 µT in terms of flux densities, but stronger values (of the order of a few µT) may occur directly beneath high-voltage power lines, at the walls of transformer buildings, and at the boundary fences of substations. In the indoor environment, high values have been measured close to several domestic appliances (up to the mT range), some of which are held close to the body, e.g., hair dryers, electric shavers. Common sources of exposure to intermediate frequencies (IF) include induction cookers, compact fluorescent lamps, inductive charging systems for electric cars and security or anti-theft devices. No systematic measurement surveys or personal exposimetry data for the IF range have been carried out and only a few reports on measurements of EMFs around such devices are mentioned. According to the available European exposure assessment studies, three population exposure categories were classified by the authors regarding the possible future risk analysis. This classification should be considered a crucial advancement for exposure assessment, which is a mandatory step in any future health risk assessment of EMFs exposure.

Effects of 3G cell phone exposure on the structure and function of the human cytochrome P450 reductase.

Cell phones increase exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs). Whether EMFs exert specific effects on biological systems remains debatable. This study investigated the effect of cell phone exposure on the structure and function of human NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). CPR plays a key role in the electron transfer to cytochrome P450, which takes part in a wide range of oxidative metabolic reactions in various organisms from microbes to humans. Human CPR was exposed for 60min to 1966-MHz RF inside a transverse electromagnetic cell (TEM-cell) placed in an incubator. The specific absorption rate (SAR) was 5W·kg(-1). Conformation changes have been detected through fluorescent spectroscopy of flavin and tryptophan residues, and investigated through circular dichroism, dynamic light scattering and microelectrophoresis. These showed that CPR was narrowed. By using cytochrome C reductase activity to assess the electron flux through the CPR, the Michaelis Menten constant (Km) and the maximum initial velocity (Vmax) decreased by 22% as compared with controls. This change was due to small changes in the tertiary and secondary structures of the protein at 37°C. The relevance of these findings to an actual RF exposure scenario demands further biochemical and in-vivo confirmation.

No Effects of Acute Exposure to Wi-Fi Electromagnetic Fields on Spontaneous EEG Activity and Psychomotor Vigilance in Healthy Human Volunteers.

Mobile equipment use of wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) signal modulation has increased exponentially in the past few decades. However, there is inconclusive scientific evidence concerning the potential risks associated with the energy deposition in the brain from Wi-Fi and whether Wi-Fi electromagnetism interacts with cognitive function. In this study we investigated possible neurocognitive effects caused by Wi-Fi exposure. First, we constructed a Wi-Fi exposure system from commercial parts. Dosimetry was first assessed by free space radiofrequency field measurements. The experimental exposure system was then modeled based on real geometry and physical characteristics. Specific absorption rate (SAR) calculations were performed using a whole-body, realistic human voxel model with values corresponding to conventional everyday Wi-Fi exposure (peak SAR10g level was 99.22 mW/kg with 1 W output power and 100% duty cycle). Then, in two provocation experiments involving healthy human volunteers we tested for two hypotheses: 1. Whether a 60 min long 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi exposure affects the spectral power of spontaneous awake electroencephalographic (sEEG) activity (N = 25); and 2. Whether similar Wi-Fi exposure modulates the sustained attention measured by reaction time in a computerized psychomotor vigilance test (PVT) (N = 19). EEG data were recorded at midline electrode sites while volunteers watched a silent documentary. In the PVT task, button press reaction time was recorded. No measurable effects of acute Wi-Fi exposure were found on spectral power of sEEG or reaction time in the psychomotor vigilance test. These results indicate that a single, 60 min Wi-Fi exposure does not alter human oscillatory brain function or objective measures of sustained attention.

Extremely low frequency (ELF) stray magnetic fields of laboratory equipment: a possible co-exposure conducting experiments on cell cultures.

Measurements of extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields were conducted in the environment of commercial laboratory equipment in order to evaluate the possible co-exposure during the experimental processes on cell cultures. Three types of device were evaluated: a cell culture CO2 incubator, a thermostatic water bath and a laboratory shaker table. These devices usually have electric motors, heating wires and electronic control systems, therefore may expose the cell cultures to undesirable ELF stray magnetic fields. Spatial distributions of magnetic field time domain signal waveform and frequency spectral analysis (FFT) were processed. Long- and short-term variation of stray magnetic field was also evaluated under normal use of investigated laboratory devices. The results show that the equipment under test may add a considerable ELF magnetic field to the ambient environmental magnetic field or to the intentional exposure to ELF, RF or other physical/chemical agents. The maximum stray magnetic fields were higher than 3 µT, 20 µT and 75 µT in the CO2 incubator, in water bath and on the laboratory shaker table, respectively, with high variation of spatial distribution and time domain. Our investigation emphasizes possible confounding factors conducting cell culture studies related to low-level ELF-EMF exposure due to the existing stray magnetic fields in the ambient environment of laboratory equipment.

Effects of concurrent caffeine and mobile phone exposure on local target probability processing in the human brain.

Millions of people use mobile phones (MP) while drinking coffee or other caffeine containing beverages. Little is known about the potential combined effects of MP irradiation and caffeine on cognitive functions. Here we investigated whether caffeine intake and concurrent exposure to Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) MP-like irradiation may interactively influence neuro-cognitive function in an active visual oddball paradigm. In a full factorial experimental design, 25 participants performed a simple visual target detection task while reaction time (RT) and electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded. Target trials were divided into Low and High probability sets based on target-to-target distance. We analyzed single trial RT and alpha-band power (amplitude) in the pre-target interval. We found that RT was shorter in High vs. Low local probability trials, and caffeine further shortened RT in High probability trials relative to the baseline condition suggesting that caffeine improves the efficiency of implicit short-term memory. Caffeine also decreased pre-target alpha amplitude resulting in higher arousal level. Furthermore, pre-target gamma power positively correlated with RT, which may have facilitated target detection. However, in the present pharmacologically validated study UMTS exposure either alone or in combination with caffeine did not alter RT or pre-stimulus oscillatory brain activity.

Characterization and Evaluation of a Commercial WLAN System for Human Provocation Studies.

This work evaluates the complex exposure characteristics of Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) technology and describes the design of a WLAN exposure system built using commercially available modular parts for the study of possible biological health effects due to WLAN exposure in a controlled environment. The system consisted of an access point and a client unit (CU) with router board cards types R52 and R52n with 18 dBm and 25 dBm peak power, respectively. Free space radiofrequency field (RF) measurements were performed with a field meter at a distance of 40 cm from the CU in order to evaluate the RF exposure at several signal configurations of the exposure system. Finally, the specific absorption rate (SAR) generated by the CU was estimated computationally in the head of two human models. Results suggest that exposure to RF fields of WLAN systems strongly depends on the sets of the router configuration: the stability of the exposure was more constant and reliable when both antennas were active and vertically positioned, with best signal quality obtained with the R52n router board at channel 9, in UDP mode. The maximum levels of peak SAR were far away from the limits of international guidelines with peak levels found over the skin.

Radiofrequency signal affects alpha band in resting electroencephalogram.

The aim of the present work was to investigate the effects of the radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) on human resting EEG with a control of some parameters that are known to affect alpha band, such as electrode impedance, salivary cortisol, and caffeine. Eyes-open and eyes-closed resting EEG data were recorded in 26 healthy young subjects under two conditions: sham exposure and real exposure in double-blind, counterbalanced, crossover design. Spectral power of EEG rhythms was calculated for the alpha band (8-12 Hz). Saliva samples were collected before and after the study. Salivary cortisol and caffeine were assessed by ELISA and HPLC, respectively. The electrode impedance was recorded at the beginning of each run. Compared with the sham session, the exposure session showed a statistically significant (P < 0.0001) decrease of the alpha band spectral power during closed-eyes condition. This effect persisted in the postexposure session (P < 0.0001). No significant changes were detected in electrode impedance, salivary cortisol, and caffeine in the sham session compared with the exposure one. These results suggest that GSM-EMFs of a mobile phone affect the alpha band within spectral power of resting human EEG.

Electromagnetic field exposure assessment in Europe radiofrequency fields (10 MHz-6 GHz).

Average levels of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of the general public in Europe are difficult to summarize, as exposure levels have been reported differently in those studies in which they have been measured, and a large proportion of reported measurements were very low, sometimes falling below detection limits of the equipment used. The goal of this paper is to present an overview of the scientific literature on RF EMF exposure in Europe and to characterize exposure within the European population. A comparative analysis of the results of spot or long-term RF EMF measurements in the EU indicated that mean electric field strengths were between 0.08 V/m and 1.8 V/m. The overwhelming majority of measured mean electric field strengths were <1 V/m. It is estimated that <1% were above 6 V/m and <0.1% were above 20 V/m. No exposure levels exceeding European Council recommendations were identified in these surveys. Most population exposures from signals of radio and television broadcast towers were observed to be weak because these transmitters are usually far away from exposed individuals and are spatially sparsely distributed. On the other hand, the contribution made to RF exposure from wireless telecommunications technology is continuously increasing and its contribution was above 60% of the total exposure. According to the European exposure assessment studies identified, three population exposure categories (intermittent variable partial body exposure, intermittent variable low-level whole-body (WB) exposure and continuous low-level WB exposure) were recognized by the authors as informative for possible future risk assessment.

Lack of interaction between concurrent caffeine and mobile phone exposure on visual target detection: an ERP study.

BACKGROUND: Caffeine affects information processing by acting predominantly on cortical activation, arousal and attention. Millions consume caffeine and simultaneously use their mobile phone (MP) during everyday activities. However, it is not known whether and how MP-emitted electromagnetic fields (EMFs) can modulate known psychoactive effects of caffeine. Here we investigated behavioral and neural correlates of caffeine and simultaneous MP exposure in a third generation (3G) Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) signal modulation scheme. METHODS: We recorded electroencephalography (EEG) and event related potentials (ERP) in an oddball paradigm to frequent standard (p=0.8) and rare target (p=0.2) stimuli in a placebo controlled, double blind, within-subject protocol in four experimental sessions: 1) no caffeine and no MP, 2) caffeine only, 3) MP only, and 4) caffeine and MP. The subjects' task was to discriminate between standard and target stimuli and respond to the latter by pressing a button while reaction time (RT) and EEG were recorded. To provide a complete analysis of any possible caffeine and/or MP treatment effects that may have occurred, we analyzed the P300 ERP wave using four different ERP measures: 1) peak latency, 2) peak amplitude, 3) 50% fractional area latency (FAL) and 4) area under the curve (AUC). RESULTS: Caffeine significantly shortened RT and decreased AUC of the P300 component compared to the control or the UMTS MP alone conditions. However, no effects were observed on RT or P300 in the UMTS MP exposure sessions, neither alone nor in combination with caffeine. CONCLUSION: Overall, the present results did not demonstrate any interactive or synergistic effects of caffeine and UMTS MP like EMF exposure on basic neural or cognitive measures. However, we found that caffeine consistently enhanced behavioral and ERP measures of visual target detection, showing that present results were obtained using a pharmacologically validated, consistent and replicable methodology.