What Are the Recommended Timing and Screening Modalities in Women at Higher Risk for Developing Breast Cancer? A Clin-IQ.

Early detection of breast cancer is desirable to prevent progression to advanced disease. This subject has been one of significant study and debate for women at normal risk, and recommendations continue to evolve. However, with regard to women at high risk, the recommendations from various health care professional organizations, including the recent recommendations from the United States Preventative Services Task Force, are different and also inconsistent concerning when to begin screening and which modalities should be used. We review several randomized controlled trials and consensus opinions regarding when to begin screening for breast cancer and how to best screen women at high risk. Specifically, we address women with known personal history of breast cancer, prior mantle radiation, or specific family history (including genetic family history) of breast cancer. The purpose of this inquiry is to present current evidence and suggest a clinical pathway regarding the screening of women at high risk for breast cancer.

Anorectal conditions: hemorrhoids.

Hemorrhoids are engorged fibrovascular cushions lining the anal canal. Constipation, increased intra-abdominal pressure, and prolonged straining predispose to hemorrhoids. Approximately 1 in 20 Americans and almost one-half of individuals older than 50 years experience symptomatic hemorrhoids. Bright red, painless rectal bleeding during defecation is the most common presentation. Even if hemorrhoids are seen on examination, patients with rectal bleeding who are at risk of colorectal cancer (eg, adults older than 50 years) should still undergo colonoscopy to exclude cancer as the etiology. Nonsurgical treatment for nonthrombosed hemorrhoids includes increased fiber intake, sitz baths, and drugs. If nonsurgical management is unsuccessful, rubber band ligation is the most effective office-based procedure for grades I, II, and III hemorrhoids. Surgical hemorrhoidectomy is indicated after failure of nonsurgical management and office-based procedures and also as initial management for grades III and IV hemorrhoids. Several different procedures can be used. For acutely thrombosed external hemorrhoids, excision and evacuation of the clot, ideally within 72 hours of symptom onset, is the optimal management. Prolapsed and strangulated hemorrhoids are best managed with stool softeners, analgesics, rest, warm soaks, and ice packs until recovery; residual hemorrhoids are banded or excised later.

Anorectal conditions: anal fissure and anorectal fistula.

Anal fissures are linear splits in the anal mucosa. Acute fissures typically resolve within a few weeks; chronic fissures persist longer than 8 to 12 weeks. Most fissures are posterior and midline and are related to constipation or anal trauma. Painful defecation and rectal bleeding are common symptoms. The diagnosis typically is clinical. High-fiber diet, stool softeners, and medicated ointments relieve symptoms and speed healing of acute fissures but offer limited benefit in chronic fissures. Lateral internal sphincterotomy is the surgical management of choice for chronic and refractory acute fissures. Anorectal fistula is an abnormal tract connecting the anorectal mucosa to the exterior skin. Fistulas typically develop after rupture or drainage of a perianal abscess. Fistulas are classified as simple or complex; low or high; and intersphincteric, transsphincteric, suprasphincteric, or extrasphincteric. Inspection of the perianal area identifies the skin opening, and anoscopy visualizes internal openings. The goal of management is to obliterate the tract and openings with negligible sphincter disruption to minimize incontinence. Fistulotomy is effective for simple fistulas; patients with complex fistulas may require fistulectomy. Other procedures that are used include injection of fibrin glue or insertion of a bioprosthetic plug into the fistula opening.

Anorectal conditions: rectal prolapse.

Rectal prolapse, the protrusion of the layers of the rectal wall through the anal canal, may be partial (mucosal) or complete (full thickness). Although prolapse is most common among older women, it affects individuals of all ages, including children. Associated fecal incontinence and constipation are typical. Urinary incontinence and uterovaginal/bladder prolapse also may coexist. Some patients may have rectal ulcers. Diagnosis is predominantly clinical; visualization of the prolapse may require the patient to strain while sitting or squatting. Imaging studies, including fluoroscopic or dynamic magnetic resonance defecography, can confirm the prolapse if the diagnosis is uncertain, and endoscopy can aid in detecting other colonic/extracolonic pathology. Nonsurgical management (eg, increased fiber intake, fiber supplements, biofeedback) often is therapeutic in minor (first- or second-degree) mucosal prolapse and can help alleviate constipation and incontinence before and after surgery for patients with full-thickness prolapse. However, for full-thickness prolapse, transabdominal procedures are the most effective management and are favored for healthy patients, irrespective of age. Perineal procedures (eg, rubber band ligation, mucosal excision) can be used for patients with full-thickness prolapse who are not candidates for transabdominal surgery and for those with second- and third-degree mucosal prolapse.

Anorectal conditions: fecal incontinence.

Although fecal incontinence occurs in all age groups, it is more common among older adults, especially nursing home residents, and it is more common among women than men. It often is associated with urinary incontinence. Etiologies are broadly categorized to include anatomic/physiologic changes due to trauma, surgery, vaginal deliveries, radiation, or disease states; neurologic disorders; drugs; and functional impairments. Evaluation is aimed at identifying etiologies, and scoring systems can be used to estimate severity and monitor outcomes. The first step in treatment is managing possible etiologies and implementing conservative measures, including increasing dietary fiber intake, using antidiarrheal drugs, removing fecal impactions, and using biofeedback. If these measures fail to control incontinence, further testing can characterize specific defects. Tests include endorectal ultrasound, anorectal manometry, and pudendal nerve terminal motor latency. After the defect is characterized, management options include injecting biocompatible material to bulk up a rectal sphincter with a defined defect, suture repair of sphincter defects, transfer of gracilis or gluteal muscle to create a new sphincter, implanting an artificial sphincter or neurostimulator, creating an ostomy through which retrograde enemas can be administered, and colostomy to prevent feces from reaching the rectum. Anal plugs are a last resort.