Population growth and a sustainable environment. The Machakos story.

PIP: The view is taken that population density in the Machakos District (boundaries prior to 1992) of Kenya influenced both environmental conservation and productivity through adaptation of new technologies. Changes in resource management in Machakos District are identified as a shift to cash crop production, experimentation with staple food options, faster tillage, use of fertilizers for enhancing soil fertility, and livestock and tree cultivation. These agricultural changes occurred due to subdivision of landholdings among sons, private appropriation of scarce grazing land, and land scarcity. Intensive practices such as intensive livestock feeding systems and the permanent manuring of fields increased the efficiency of nutrient cycling through plants, animals, and soils. The Akamba custom gave land rights to those who tilled the soil first. Formal land registration occurred after 1968 and favored owners and investors. Small farm investment was made possible through work off-farm and remittances. The value of output per square kilometer at constant prices increased during 1930-87. Cultivated land area also increased during this period, but mostly on poorer quality land. Agricultural changes were enhanced by social and institutional factors such as small family units and greater partnerships between husband and wife. Families pooled resources through collectives. Women played leadership roles. Competing interest groups and organizations have evolved and enabled people to articulate their needs and obtain access to resources at all levels. These institutions increased in strength over time and with increased density. The cost of service provision decreased with greater population numbers. Development of roads and schools facilitated formal education. Population density, market growth, and a generally supportive economic environment are viewed as the factors responsible for changes in Machakos District. Technological change is viewed as an endogenous process of adaptation to new technologies. Changes in Machakos District are viewed as driven by a combination of exogenous and endogenous practices and local initiative.^ieng

Population growth and natural resource use: do we need to despair of Africa?.

The authors make the case that population growth can lead to increases in agricultural output per head on a sustainable basis. This argument, originally developed by E. Boserup, is "illustrated by a study of Machakos District, Kenya during 1930-1960, which shows that, if policies are supportive, agricultural and non-farm incomes grow faster than even the rapid population growth rate experienced in Africa. Land use capability is not fixed, but can be transformed by investment, new technologies and good management. Lack of investment and consequent degradation are most likely at low population densities. While the study cannot foretell the future, Java illustrates a similar theme at even higher densities."