The effects of school gardens on fruit and vegetable consumption at school: A randomized controlled trial with low-income elementary schools in four U.S. states.

This randomized controlled trial examines the effects of a school garden intervention on children's fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption at school over two years. We randomly assigned schools to the intervention group that received gardens and related curriculum (n = 24) or to the waitlist control group that received gardens and curriculum at the conclusion of the study (n = 22). Children in second, fourth, and fifth grade at baseline (n = 2767) in low-income schools (n = 46) in four U.S. States (Arkansas, Iowa, New York, and Washington) participated. The intervention comprised gardens for each classroom; a curriculum focused on nutrition, plant science, and horticulture, including activities and FV tasting sessions; resources for the school that addressed topics such as soil contamination and food safety; an implementation guide focused on issues related to planning, planting, and maintaining the garden through the year, engaging volunteers, summer gardening, building community capacity, and sustaining the gardening program. FV consumption was measured by photographing lunches before and after children ate, for 2-3 days, at baseline and at each of 3 subsequent periods of data collection during the intervention. FV consumption was calculated using Digital Food Image Analysis. Among children in the intervention, fruit consumption and low-fat vegetable consumption increased from pre-garden baseline to post-garden more than among control group children. Garden intervention fidelity (GIF) also predicted changes in dietary intake, with more robust interventions showing a stronger effect than weaker interventions. GIF-lessons was a particularly potent predictor of change in dietary intake. School gardens modestly increase children's FV consumption at school.

Limited Shared Variance among Measures of Cognitive Performance Used in Nutrition Research: The Need to Prioritize Construct Validity and Biological Mechanisms in Choice of Measures.

BACKGROUND: The literature on correlates of nutrition has seen an increase in studies focused on functional consequences at the levels of neural, perceptual, and cognitive functioning. A range of measurement methodologies have been used in these studies, and investigators and funding agencies have raised the questions of how and if these various methodologies are at all comparable. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to determine the extent to which 3 different sets of cognitive measures provide comparable information across 2 subsamples that shared culture and language but differed in terms of socioeconomic status (SES) and academic preparation. METHODS: A total of 216 participants were recruited at 2 US universities. Each participant completed 3 sets of cognitive measures: 1 custom-designed set based on well-understood laboratory measures of cognition [cognitive task battery (COGTASKS)] and 2 normed batteries [Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB), Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale, fourth edition (WAIS-IV)] designed for assessing general cognitive function. RESULTS: The 3 sets differed with respect to the extent to which SES and educational preparation affected the results, with COGTASKS showing no differences due to testing location and WAIS-IV showing substantial differences. There were, at best, weak correlations among tasks sharing the same name or claiming to measure the same construct. CONCLUSIONS: Comparability of measures of cognition cannot be assumed, even if measures have the same name or claim to assess the same construct. In selecting and evaluating different measures, construct validity and underlying biological mechanisms need to be at least as important as population norms and the ability to connect with existing literatures.

The carry-over effects of school gardens on fruit and vegetable availability at home: A randomized controlled trial with low-income elementary schools.

This group-randomized controlled trial examines the effects of a school garden intervention on availability of fruits and vegetables (FV) in elementary school children's homes. Within each region, low income U.S. schools in Arkansas, Iowa, New York, and Washington State were randomly assigned to intervention group (n = 24) or waitlist control group (n = 22). Children were in grades 2, 4, and 5 at baseline (n = 2768). The garden intervention consisted of both raised-bed garden kits and a series of grade-appropriate lessons. FV availability at home was measured with a modified version of the GEMS FJV Availability Questionnaire. The instrument was administered at baseline (Fall 2011) and throughout the intervention (Spring 2012, Fall 2012, Spring 2013). Analyses were completed using general linear mixed models. The garden intervention led to an overall increase in availability of low-fat vegetables at home. Among younger children (2nd grade at baseline), the garden intervention led to greater home availability of vegetables, especially, low-fat vegetables. Moreover, for the younger group, garden intervention fidelity (GIF) or robustness predicted home availability of fruit, vegetables, and low-fat vegetables. School gardens have potential to affect FV availability in the home environment.