Isolated high altitude psychosis, delirium at high altitude, and high altitude cerebral edema: are these diagnoses valid?

Psychosis is a psychopathological syndrome that can be triggered or caused by exposure to high altitude (HA). Psychosis can occur alone as isolated HA psychosis or can be associated with other mental and often also somatic symptoms as a feature of delirium. Psychosis can also occur as a symptom of high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), a life-threatening condition. It is unclear how psychotic symptoms at HA should be classified into existing diagnostic categories of the most widely used classification systems of mental disorders, including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11). We provide a diagnostic framework for classifying symptoms using the existing diagnostic categories: psychotic condition due to a general medical condition, brief psychotic disorder, delirium, and HACE. We also discuss the potential classification of isolated HA psychosis into those categories. A valid and reproducible classification of symptoms is essential for communication among professionals, ensuring that patients receive optimal treatment, planning further trips to HA for individuals who have experienced psychosis at HA, and advancing research in the field.

Association of Pre-existing Mental Health Conditions with Acute Mountain Sickness at Everest Base Camp.

Hüfner, Katharina, Fabio Caramazza, Evelyn R. Pircher Nöckler, Agnieszka E. Stawinoga, Paolo Fusar-Poli, Sanjeeb S. Bhandari, Buddha Basnyat, Monika Brodmann Maeder, Giacomo Strapazzon, Iztok Tomazin, Ken Zafren, Hermann Brugger, and Barbara Sperner-Unterweger. Association of pre-existing mental health conditions with acute mountain sickness at Everest Base Camp. High Alt Med Biol. 23:338-344, 2022. Background: Mental health disorders are common, but limited data are available regarding the number of people with a past medical history of psychiatric diagnoses going to high altitude (HA). It is also unknown whether mental health conditions are associated with an increased risk of acute mountain sickness (AMS). Methods: We analyzed data from a previous study at Everest Base Camp. Participants self-reported their past medical history and history of substance use and had a brief history taken by a physician. AMS was assessed using the self-reported 2018 Lake Louise AMS Score. Results: Eighty-five participants (66 men and 19 women, age 38 ± 9 years) were included. When questioned by a physician, 28 participants reported prior diagnoses or symptoms compatible with depression (23%), anxiety disorder (6%), post-traumatic stress disorder (1%), and psychosis/psychotic experiences (9%). The prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses in the past medical history was much lower in the self-reported data (2/85) compared to data obtained via physician assessment (28/85). Increased risks of AMS were associated with a past medical history of anxiety disorder (odds ratio [OR] 22.7; confidence interval [95% CI] 2.3-220.6; p < 0.001), depression (OR 3.6; 95% CI 1.2-11.2; p = 0.022), and recreational drug use ever (OR 7.3; 95% CI 1.5-35.5; p = 0.006). Conclusions: Many people who travel to HA have a past medical history of mental health conditions. These individuals have an increased risk of scoring positive for AMS on the Lake Louise Score compared with people without a history of mental health conditions.

Assessment of Psychotic Symptoms in Individuals Exposed to Very High or Extreme Altitude: A Field Study.

Hüfner, Katharina, Fabio Caramazza, Agnieszka E. Stawinoga, Evelyn R. Pircher Nöckler, Paolo Fusar-Poli, Sanjeeb S. Bhandari, Buddha Basnyat, Monika Brodmann Maeder, Giacomo Strapazzon, Iztok Tomazin, Barbara Sperner-Unterweger, and Hermann Brugger. Assessment of psychotic symptoms in individuals exposed to very high or extreme altitude: A field study. High Alt Med Biol. 22:369-378, 2021. Background: Symptoms of psychosis such as hallucinations can occur at high or extreme altitude and have been linked to accidents on the mountain. No data are available on how to assess such symptoms in the field and what their prevalence or predisposing factors might be. Methods: In this field study at Everest Base Camp (5,365 m) in Nepal, 99 participants of organized expeditions underwent 279 assessments: The High Altitude Psychosis Questionnaire (HAPSY-Q), the Prodromal Questionnaire, 16-items (PQ-16), and the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I., psychosis section) were collected together with further clinical data. Statistical analysis was done for each phase, that is, altitude range of the climb, and overall data. Results: One of 97 climbers fulfilled the M.I.N.I. diagnostic criteria for psychosis during one acclimatization climb. At least one endorsed item on the HAPSY-Q and the PQ-16, indicating the presence of symptoms of psychosis in the absence of a psychotic disorders, were identified in 10/97 (10.3%) and 18/87 (20.7%) participants respectively. The scores of the HAPSY-Q and the PQ-16 were correlated (r = 0.268, p < 0.001). Odds ratio analysis identified an increased risk for accidents in individuals with endorsed items on the HAPSY-Q. Conclusions: The diagnosis of high altitude psychosis is rare in climbers during organized expeditions. Nevertheless, subdiagnostic symptoms of psychosis occurred in a significant proportion of climbers. Future research is needed to validate these pilot findings.

Development of a Self-Administered Questionnaire to Detect Psychosis at High Altitude: The HAPSY Questionnaire.

Aims: Psychotic symptoms during exposure to high altitude (HA) have been linked to accidents or near accidents on the mountains. It is thus of great importance to directly identify psychotic symptoms in individuals who are exposed to HA quickly and reliably on the mountain, even in the absence of experienced medical personnel. Psychotic features at HA frequently include positive psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized thinking/speech. The aim of the current study was to develop the first self-administered questionnaire (High Altitude Psychosis [HAPSY] Questionnaire), which individuals may use in the future to self-assess altitude-related psychotic symptoms on the mountain. Methods: We utilized two existing self-rating questionnaires for psychotic symptoms (the Psychotomimetic States Inventory, PSI and the Cardiff Anomalous Perception Scale, CAPS) as the basis for a two-round Delphi process. As part of this process, additional statements were suggested by the 40 Delphi participants. Results: Eleven self-administered statements-all of them related to positive psychotic symptoms-were identified to be most useful for the self-detection of HA-related psychotic symptoms on the mountain. Conclusion: This is the first self-administered questionnaire that allows the identification of HA-related psychotic symptoms on the mountain. A subsequent validation study is needed to address the psychometric properties of this questionnaire. Clinical validation will have to be performed in a field study.

Isolated psychosis during exposure to very high and extreme altitude - characterisation of a new medical entity.

BACKGROUND: Psychotic episodes during exposure to very high or extreme altitude have been frequently reported in mountain literature, but not systematically analysed and acknowledged as a distinct clinical entity. METHODS: Episodes reported above 3500 m altitude with possible psychosis were collected from the lay literature and provide the basis for this observational study. Dimensional criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders were used for psychosis, and the Lake Louise Scoring criteria for acute mountain sickness and high-altitude cerebral oedema (HACE). Eighty-three of the episodes collected underwent a cluster analysis to identify similar groups. Ratings were done by two independent, trained researchers (κ values 0.6-1).FindingsCluster 1 included 51% (42/83) episodes without psychosis; cluster 2 22% (18/83) cases with psychosis, plus symptoms of HACE or mental status change from other origins; and cluster 3 28% (23/83) episodes with isolated psychosis. Possible risk factors of psychosis and associated somatic symptoms were analysed between the three clusters and revealed differences regarding the factors 'starvation' (χ2 test, p = 0.002), 'frostbite' (p = 0.024) and 'supplemental oxygen' (p = 0.046). Episodes with psychosis were reversible but associated with near accidents and accidents (p = 0.007, odds ratio 4.44). CONCLUSIONS: Episodes of psychosis during exposure to high altitude are frequently reported, but have not been specifically examined or assigned to medical diagnoses. In addition to the risk of suffering from somatic mountain illnesses, climbers and workers at high altitude should be aware of the potential occurrence of psychotic episodes, the associated risks and respective coping strategies.

HEMS in Slovenia: one country, four models, different quality outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine the quality of patient care using quality indicators in 4 different Slovenian helicopter emergency medical service (HEMS) models. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of all 4 HEMS in Slovenia. We collected data on quality for the period from July 2003 to August 2008, in a sample of all eligible patients that were managed by HEMS during the study period (N = 833). We obtained the following data on emergency operations: the time and organizational features of the operation; the description of the patients' condition; and the on-site diagnostic and treatment procedures. We used the following as quality indicators: the number of resuscitated patients that were intubated; the number of patients with a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of # 8 that were intubated; the number of patients with acute coronary syndrome that received treatment with morphine, oxygen, nitroglycerine, and aspirin (MONA); the number of patients with a National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) scale score of $ 4 with an intravenous line; the number of patients with a NACA score of $ 5 that were given oxygen; and the number of patients with a NACA score of $ 4 that were given appropriate analgesic treatment. RESULTS: Across all HEMS bases, 36 (87.8%) resuscitated patients were intubated; 122 (81.9%) patients with GCS # 8 were intubated; 149 (89.2%) patients with ACS were given MONA treatment; 52 (92.9%) patients with a NACA score of $ 4 were given an intravenous line; 254 (92.7%) patients with a NACA score of $ 5 were given oxygen; and 18 (32.7%) trauma patients with a NACA score of $ 4 were given intravenous analgesics. The quality of patient management in HEMS in Slovenia is affected by the callout procedure, the presence or absence of a fixed rope, the type of helicopter operator, and the provider of the doctor in the helicopter team. CONCLUSIONS: The data from our study indicates that the quality of patient management in HEMS in Slovenia is high. It also seems that organizational factors play a role in the quality management of patients in HEMS as well, but their effect remains unclear and needs further evaluation.

Factors impacting on the activation and approach times of helicopter emergency medical services in four Alpine countries.

BACKGROUND: The outcome of severely injured or ill patients can be time dependent. Short activation and approach times for emergency medical service (EMS) units are widely recognized to be important quality indicators. The use of a helicopter emergency medical service (HEMS) can significantly shorten rescue missions especially in mountainous areas. We aimed to analyze the HEMS characteristics that influence the activation and approach times. METHODS: In a multi-centre retrospective study, we analyzed 6121 rescue missions from nine HEMS bases situated in mountainous regions of four European countries. RESULTS: We found large differences in mean activation and approach times among HEMS bases. The shortest mean activation time was 2.9 minutes; the longest 17.0 minutes. The shortest mean approach time was 10.4 minutes; the longest 45.0 minutes. Short times are linked (p < 0.001) to the following conditions: helicopter operator is not state owned; HEMS is integrated in EMS; all crew members are at the same location; doctors come from state or private health institutions; organization performing HEMS is privately owned; helicopters are only for HEMS; operation area is around 10.000 km2; HEMS activation is by a dispatching centre of regional government who is in charge of making decisions; there is only one intermediator in the emergency call; helicopter is equipped with hoist or fixed line; HEMS has more than one base with helicopters, and one team per base; closest neighboring base is 90 km away; HEMS is about 20 years old and has more than 650 missions per year; and modern helicopters are used. CONCLUSIONS: An improvement in HEMS activation and approach times is possible. We found 17 factors associated with shorter times.

Medical standards for mountain rescue operations using helicopters: official consensus recommendations of the International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR MEDCOM).

The purpose of this article is to establish medical recommendations for safe and effective Helicopter Emergency Medical Systems (HEMS) in countries with a dedicated mountain rescue service. A nonsystematic search was undertaken and a consensus among members of International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR Medcom) was reached. For the severely injured or ill patient, survival depends on approach time and quality of medical treatment by high-level providers. Helicopters can provide significant shortening of the times involved in mountain rescue. Safety is of utmost importance and everything possible should be done to minimize risk. Even in the mountainous environment, the patient should be reached as quickly as possible (optimally<20 min) and provided with on-site and en-route medical treatment according to international standards. The HEMS unit should be integrated into the Emergency Medical System of the region. All dispatchers should be aware of the specific problems encountered in mountainous areas. The nearest qualified HEMS team to the incident site, regardless of administrative boundaries, should be dispatched. The 'air rescue optimal crew' concept with its flexibility and adaptability of crewmembers ensures that all HEMS tasks can be performed. The helicopter and all equipment should be appropriate for the conditions and specific for mountain related emergencies. These recommendations, agreed by ICAR Medcom, establish recommendations for safe and effective HEMS in mountain rescue.

Immobilization and splinting in mountain rescue. Official Recommendations of the International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine, ICAR MEDCOM, Intended for Mountain Rescue First Responders, Physicians, and Rescue Organizations.

Immobilization and splinting of fractures are essential to reduce morbidity and mortality in mountain rescue. Therefore, members of the International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR MEDCOM) debated the results of a literature review carried out by the authors. Focusing on common immobilization and splinting techniques relevant to mountain rescue, a consensus document was formulated. Pain relief of appropriate speed of onset and strength should be available on scene. Spinal immobilization is recommended for all casualties that have sustained head or spine injury. The preferred method is a vacuum mattress with an appropriately sized rigid cervical collar. In such casualties, only those in an unsafe environment or with time-critical injuries should be evacuated before spinal immobilization is performed. In some casualties, the cervical spine may be cleared and a cervical collar may be omitted. In the presence of hemodynamic instability and where there is a suspicion of a fractured pelvis, an external compression splint should be applied. Splinting of a femoral shaft fracture is important to limit pain and life-threatening blood loss. If time allows, extremity fractures should be adequately splinted and, if the practitioner is skilled, a displaced fracture or joint dislocation should be reduced on scene with the use of appropriate analgesia.

Helicopter emergency medical service in mountainous areas.

The outcome of patient care can be dramatically improved by bringing rapid rescue-medical treatment to the scene and by rapid transport to a medical facility. In mountainous areas this is usually possible only with the use of helicopters. ICAR MEDCOM suggests international standards for competent and safe response to medical problems in mountainous and wilderness areas. Rescue helicopters should work within the existing emergency medical system with appropriate mountain rescue and medically-trained personnel and with medical and rescue equipment on board. Safety is most important issue in mountain rescue. Activation and approach time should be as short as possible. All persons responsible for activation and realization of a helicopter rescue operation should be aware of all specific problems in the mountains and wilderness.

Medical considerations in the use of helicopters in mountain rescue.

The outcome of patient care can be dramatically improved by bringing rapid rescue and medical care to the mountain rescue scene and by rapid transport to a medical facility. The use of a helicopter for these purposes is common. It is necessary when it has clear advantages for victims in comparison with ground rescue and transport. Helicopters should work within the existing emergency medical system and must be staffed by appropriate mountain rescue and medically trained personnel. Activation time should be as short as possible. Activation of a helicopter for a mountain rescue should primarily include indication and assessment of flight and safety conditions. No other mediators or delaying factors should be permitted. The main safety criteria are appropriate mountain rescue and flight training, competence of air and ground crews, radio communication between the air and ground crews, and mission briefing before the rescue. Criteria for a helicopter used for mountain rescue are proper medical and rescue equipment, load capacity, adequate space, and others. There are two main groups of indications for use of a helicopter for mountain rescue: the patient's condition and the circumstances at the site of the accident. All persons responsible for the activation of the helicopter rescue operation should be aware of specific problems in the mountains or wilderness.