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1.
Microbes Infect ; 15(1): 37-44, 2013 Jan.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23108317

ABSTRACT

Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax and is acquired by three routes of infection: inhalational, gastrointestinal and cutaneous. Gastrointestinal (GI) anthrax is rare, but can rapidly result in severe, systemic disease that is fatal in 25%-60% of cases. Disease mechanisms of GI anthrax remain unclear due to limited numbers of clinical cases and the lack of experimental animal models. Here, we developed an in vivo murine model of GI anthrax where spore survival was maximized through the neutralization of stomach acid followed by an intragastric administration of a thiabendazole paste spore formulation. Infected mice showed a dose-dependent mortality rate and pathological features closely mimicking human GI anthrax. Since Peyer's patches in the murine intestine are the primary sites of B. anthracis growth, we developed a human M (microfold)-like-cell model using a Caco-2/Raji B-cell co-culturing system to study invasive mechanisms of GI anthrax across the intestinal epithelium. Translocation of B. anthracis spores was higher in M-like cells than Caco-2 monolayers, suggesting that M-like cells may serve as an initial entry site for spores. Here, we developed an in vivo murine model of GI anthrax and an in vitro M-like cell model that could be used to further our knowledge of GI anthrax pathogenesis.


Subject(s)
Anthrax/microbiology , Bacillus anthracis/physiology , Disease Models, Animal , Gastrointestinal Diseases/microbiology , Animals , Anthrax/pathology , Bacillus anthracis/pathogenicity , Bacterial Adhesion/physiology , Bacterial Load , Bacterial Translocation , Caco-2 Cells , Female , Gastrointestinal Diseases/pathology , Host-Pathogen Interactions , Humans , Intestinal Mucosa/microbiology , Intestinal Mucosa/pathology , Kaplan-Meier Estimate , Mice , Mice, Inbred DBA , Spores, Bacterial
2.
Cell Microbiol ; 14(8): 1219-30, 2012 Aug.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22452315

ABSTRACT

To achieve widespread dissemination in the host, Bacillus anthracis cells regulate their attachment to host endothelium during infection. Previous studies identified BslA (Bacillus anthracis S-layer Protein A), a virulence factor of B. anthracis, as necessary and sufficient for adhesion of vegetative cells to human endothelial cells. While some factors have been identified, bacteria-specific contributions to BslA mediated adhesion remain unclear. Using the attenuated vaccine Sterne 7702 strain of B. anthracis, we tested the hypothesis that InhA (immune inhibitor A), a B. anthracis protease, regulates BslA levels affecting the bacteria's ability to bind to endothelium. To test this, a combination of inhA mutant and complementation analysis in adhesion and invasion assays, Western blot and InhA inhibitor assays were employed. Results show InhA downregulates BslA activity reducing B. anthracis adhesion and invasion in human brain endothelial cells. BslA protein levels in ΔinhA bacteria were significantly higher than wild-type and complemented strains showing InhA levels and BslA expression are inversely related. BslA was sensitive to purified InhA degradation in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Taken together these data support the role of InhA regulation of BslA-mediated vegetative cell adhesion and invasion.


Subject(s)
Adhesins, Bacterial/metabolism , Bacillus anthracis/enzymology , Bacterial Adhesion , Endothelial Cells/microbiology , Metalloproteases/metabolism , Animals , Bacillus anthracis/genetics , Bacillus anthracis/physiology , Bicarbonates/chemistry , Brain/blood supply , Culture Media/chemistry , Gene Expression , Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial , Gene Knockout Techniques , Host-Pathogen Interactions , Humans , Macrophages/microbiology , Metalloproteases/genetics , Mice , Microbial Viability , Microvessels/cytology , Phenanthrolines/pharmacology , Protease Inhibitors/pharmacology , Proteolysis , Virulence Factors/metabolism
3.
PLoS One ; 6(3): e18119, 2011 Mar 25.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21464960

ABSTRACT

The causative agent of anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, is capable of circumventing the humoral and innate immune defense of the host and modulating the blood chemistry in circulation to initiate a productive infection. It has been shown that the pathogen employs a number of strategies against immune cells using secreted pathogenic factors such as toxins. However, interference of B. anthracis with the innate immune system through specific interaction of the spore surface with host proteins such as the complement system has heretofore attracted little attention. In order to assess the mechanisms by which B. anthracis evades the defense system, we employed a proteomic analysis to identify human serum proteins interacting with B. anthracis spores, and found that plasminogen (PLG) is a major surface-bound protein. PLG efficiently bound to spores in a lysine- and exosporium-dependent manner. We identified α-enolase and elongation factor tu as PLG receptors. PLG-bound spores were capable of exhibiting anti-opsonic properties by cleaving C3b molecules in vitro and in rabbit bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, resulting in a decrease in macrophage phagocytosis. Our findings represent a step forward in understanding the mechanisms involved in the evasion of innate immunity by B. anthracis through recruitment of PLG resulting in the enhancement of anti-complement and anti-opsonization properties of the pathogen.


Subject(s)
Bacillus anthracis/immunology , Complement C3b/immunology , Fibrinolysin/metabolism , Immunity, Innate/immunology , Plasminogen/metabolism , Animals , Bacillus anthracis/drug effects , Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid/immunology , Cell Line , Cell Membrane/drug effects , Cell Membrane/metabolism , Electrophoresis, Gel, Two-Dimensional , Humans , Immunity, Innate/drug effects , Macrophages/cytology , Macrophages/drug effects , Macrophages/immunology , Macrophages/microbiology , Mice , Opsonin Proteins/immunology , Phagocytosis/drug effects , Phagocytosis/immunology , Protein Binding/drug effects , Rabbits , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Spores, Bacterial/drug effects , Spores, Bacterial/metabolism , Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator/pharmacology
4.
FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol ; 62(2): 173-81, 2011 Jul.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21395696

ABSTRACT

The fibrinolytic system is often the target for pathogenic bacteria, resulting in increased fibrinolysis, bacterial dissemination, and inflammation. The purpose of this study was to explore whether proteases NprB and InhA secreted by Bacillus anthracis could activate the host's fibrinolytic system. NprB efficiently activated human pro-urokinase plasminogen activator (pro-uPA), a key protein in the fibrinolytic cascade. Conversely, InhA had little effect on pro-uPA. Plasminogen activator inhibitors (PAI)-1, 2 and the uPA receptor were also targets for NprB in vitro. InhA efficiently degraded the thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI) in vitro. Mice infected with B. anthracis showed a significant decrease in blood TAFI levels. In another mouse experiment, animals infected with isogenic inhA deletion mutants restored TAFI levels, while the levels in the parent strain decreased. We propose that NprB and InhA may contribute to the activation of the fibrinolytic system in anthrax infection.


Subject(s)
Bacillus anthracis/enzymology , Fibrinolysis , Peptide Hydrolases/metabolism , Animals , Anthrax/microbiology , Anthrax/pathology , Carboxypeptidase B2/blood , Carboxypeptidase B2/metabolism , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Humans , Mice , Mice, Inbred DBA , Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1/metabolism , Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 2/metabolism , Receptors, Urokinase Plasminogen Activator/metabolism , Recombinant Proteins/metabolism , Rodent Diseases/microbiology , Rodent Diseases/pathology , Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator/metabolism
5.
PLoS One ; 6(3): e17921, 2011 Mar 17.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-21437287

ABSTRACT

Hemorrhagic meningitis is a fatal complication of anthrax, but its pathogenesis remains poorly understood. The present study examined the role of B. anthracis-secreted metalloprotease InhA on monolayer integrity and permeability of human brain microvasculature endothelial cells (HBMECs) which constitute the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Treatment of HBMECs with purified InhA resulted in a time-dependent decrease in trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) accompanied by zonula occluden-1 (ZO-1) degradation. An InhA-expressing B. subtilis exhibited increased permeability of HBMECs, which did not occur with the isogenic inhA deletion mutant (ΔinhA) of B. anthracis, compared with the corresponding wild-type strain. Mice intravenously administered with purified InhA or nanoparticles-conjugated to InhA demonstrated a time-dependent Evans Blue dye extravasation, leptomeningeal thickening, leukocyte infiltration, and brain parenchymal distribution of InhA indicating BBB leakage and cerebral hemorrhage. Mice challenged with vegetative bacteria of the ΔinhA strain of B. anthracis exhibited a significant decrease in leptomeningeal thickening compared to the wildtype strain. Cumulatively, these findings indicate that InhA contributes to BBB disruption associated with anthrax meningitis through proteolytic attack on the endothelial tight junctional protein zonula occluden (ZO)-1.


Subject(s)
Bacillus anthracis/enzymology , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Blood-Brain Barrier/microbiology , Blood-Brain Barrier/pathology , Cerebral Hemorrhage/microbiology , Cerebral Hemorrhage/pathology , Metalloproteases/metabolism , Animals , Anthrax/microbiology , Anthrax/pathology , Blotting, Western , Cytoplasm/metabolism , Electric Impedance , Endothelial Cells/metabolism , Endothelial Cells/microbiology , Endothelial Cells/pathology , Female , Humans , Membrane Proteins/metabolism , Mice , Mutant Proteins/metabolism , Nanospheres , Permeability , Phosphoproteins/metabolism , Zonula Occludens-1 Protein
6.
J Med Microbiol ; 58(Pt 6): 737-744, 2009 Jun.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-19429749

ABSTRACT

Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. The infection is associated with inflammation and sepsis, but little is known about the acute-phase response during disease and the nature of the bacterial factors causing it. In this study, we examined the levels of the acute-phase proteins (APPs) in comparative experiments using mice challenged with spores and a purified B. anthracis protease InhA as a possible factor mediating the response. A strong increase in the plasma levels of APPs such as haptoglobin and serum amyloid A was observed during infection. Protein and mRNA levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 in the liver were also increased concurrently with bacterial dissemination at 72 h post-infection. Similar effects were observed at 6 h post injection with InhA. Induction of hepatic transforming growth factor-beta1, a PAI-1 inducer, was also found in the liver of InhA-injected mice. PAI-1 elevation by InhA resulted in an increased level of urokinase-type plasminogen activator complex with PAI-1 and a decreased level of D-dimers indicating inhibition of blood fibrinolysis. These results reveal an acute liver response to anthrax infection and provide a plausible pathophysiological link between the host inflammatory response and the pro-thrombotic haemostatic imbalance in the course of disease through PAI-1 induction in the liver.


Subject(s)
Acute-Phase Proteins/metabolism , Anthrax/physiopathology , Bacillus anthracis/enzymology , Bacillus anthracis/pathogenicity , Metalloproteases/metabolism , Plasminogen Activator Inhibitor 1/metabolism , Up-Regulation , Animals , Anthrax/immunology , Anthrax/microbiology , Bacillus anthracis/physiology , Bacterial Proteins/metabolism , Female , Haptoglobins/metabolism , Humans , Inflammation/immunology , Inflammation/microbiology , Liver/metabolism , Mice , Mice, Inbred DBA , Spores, Bacterial/pathogenicity , Thrombosis/immunology , Thrombosis/microbiology
7.
Cytokine ; 36(5-6): 237-44, 2006 Dec.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-17350279

ABSTRACT

Airway epithelial inflammation associated with emphysema, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma is regulated in part by alveolar type II cell chemokine signaling. Data suggest that resident lung cells use CCR3, CCR5 and CCR2 chemokine receptor/ligand systems to regulate the profile of leukocytes recruited in disease-associated inflammatory conditions. Thus studies were designed to test whether alveolar type II cells possess a Th1-activated CCR5-ligand system that modulates the Th2-activated CCR3/eotaxin-2 (CCL24), eotaxin-3 (CCL26) chemokine systems. The A549 alveolar type II epithelial-like cell culture model was used to demonstrate that alveolar type II cells constitutively express CCR5 which may be upregulated by MIP-1alpha (CCL3) whose expression was induced by the Th1 cytokines IL-1beta and IFN-gamma. Selective down-regulation of CCL26, but not CCL24, was observed in CCL3 and IL-4/CCL3 stimulated cells. Down-regulation was reversed by anti-CCR5 neutralizing antibody treatment. Thus, one mechanism through which Th1-activated CCCR5/ligand pathways modulate Th2-activated CCR3/ligand pathways is the differential down-regulation of CCL26 expression. Results suggest that the CCR3 and CCR5 receptor/ligand signaling pathways may be important targets for development of novel mechanism-based adjunctive therapies designed to abrogate the chronic inflammation associated with airway diseases.


Subject(s)
Chemokines, CC/metabolism , Epithelial Cells/immunology , Pulmonary Alveoli/cytology , Pulmonary Alveoli/immunology , Cell Line, Tumor , Chemokine CCL26 , Chemokine CCL3 , Chemokines, CC/immunology , Humans , Interleukin-4/immunology , Receptors, CCR5/immunology , Receptors, CCR5/metabolism
8.
Emerg Infect Dis ; 11(8): 1294-6, 2005 Aug.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-16102323

ABSTRACT

We report West Nile virus (WNV) RNA in urine collected from a patient with encephalitis 8 days after symptom onset. Viral RNA was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Sequence and phylogenetic analysis confirmed the PCR product to have > or = 99% similarity to the WNV strain NY 2000-crow3356.


Subject(s)
West Nile Fever/urine , West Nile virus/isolation & purification , Aged , Antibodies, Viral/blood , Cluster Analysis , Humans , Male , Phylogeny , RNA, Viral/chemistry , RNA, Viral/genetics , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction , Sequence Alignment , Sequence Analysis, DNA , West Nile Fever/drug therapy , West Nile virus/genetics
9.
Am J Trop Med Hyg ; 72(3): 320-4, 2005 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-15772329

ABSTRACT

Adult hamsters that survived experimental West Nile virus (WNV) infection developed persistent viruria. Infectious WNV could be cultured from their urine for up to 52 days. Immunohistochemical examination of kidneys of viruric animals showed foci of WNV antigen in renal tubular epithelial and vascular endothelial cells. These findings are compatible with virus replication and persistent infection of renal epithelial cells. The potential clinical and virologic significance of these findings as well as their possible epidemiologic importance are discussed.


Subject(s)
Virus Shedding , West Nile Fever/transmission , Animals , Antigens, Viral/analysis , Cricetinae , Disease Models, Animal , Kidney/pathology , Kidney/virology , Liver/virology , Mesocricetus , West Nile virus/isolation & purification
10.
Am J Trop Med Hyg ; 72(3): 325-9, 2005 Mar.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-15772330

ABSTRACT

The results of experiments comparing the pathogenesis of West Nile virus (WNV) following infection by mosquito bite, needle inoculation, and ingestion are reported. Adult hamsters were readily infected by all three routes. The level and duration of viremia, clinical manifestations, pathology, and antibody response in the hamsters following mosquito infection and needle inoculation were similar; after oral infection, the onset of viremia was delayed and the mortality was lower, but the level and duration of viremia, histopathology, and antibody response were similar to the other routes. The results from this and previously published studies indicate that a wide variety of animal species are susceptible to oral infection with WNV and that orally infected animals develop a viremia and illness similar to that following the bite of infected mosquitoes. Oral infection appears to be an alternative transmission mechanism used by a number of different flaviviruses; its potential role in the natural history of WNV is discussed.


Subject(s)
West Nile Fever/transmission , West Nile virus/isolation & purification , Animals , Antibodies, Viral/blood , Chlorocebus aethiops , Cricetinae , Culex , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Liver/virology , Mesocricetus , Vero Cells , Viremia/physiopathology , West Nile Fever/physiopathology
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