Physical activity staging distribution: establishing a heuristic using multiple studies.

The purpose of this study was to identify the population prevalence across the stages of change (SoC) for regular physical activity and to establish the prevalence of people at risk. With support from the National Institutes of Health, the American Heart Association, and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, nine Behavior Change Consortium studies with a common physical activity SoC measure agreed to collaborate and share data. The distribution pattern identified in these predominantly reactively recruited studies was Precontemplation (PC) = 5% (+/- 10), Contemplation (C) = 10% (+/- 10), Preparation (P) = 40% (+/- 10), Action = 10% (+/- 10), and Maintenance = 35% (+/- 10). With reactively recruited studies, it can be anticipated that there will be a higher percentage of the sample that is ready to change and a greater percentage of currently active people compared to random representative samples. The at-risk stage distribution (i.e., those not at criteria or PC, C, and P) was approximately 10% PC, 20% C, and 70% P in specific samples and approximately 20% PC, 10% C, and 70% P in the clinical samples. Knowing SoC heuristics can inform public health practitioners and policymakers about the population's motivation for physical activity, help track changes over time, and assist in the allocation of resources.

Brief, computer-assisted diabetes dietary self-management counseling: effects on behavior, physiologic outcomes, and quality of life.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this work was to evaluate the reach, effectiveness, adoption, and implementation of a brief behavioral dietary intervention and 2 supplemental components of diabetes self-management support: telephone follow-up calls and community resources enhancement. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: This was a 2 x 2 randomized, controlled trial investigating the incremental effects of telephone follow-up and community resources enhancement with 320 adult type 2 diabetes outpatients. METHODS. Key outcomes included behavioral (dietary patterns, fat intake), physiologic (HbA1c, lipids), and quality-of-life/patient satisfaction measures and were collected at baseline and 3- and 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Despite high reach (76% patient participation), excellent adoption (all 12 primary care practices approached participated), and good implementation, there were few outcome differences among treatment conditions. There was significant improvement across conditions in most outcomes in each category at both follow-ups. CONCLUSIONS: A brief, computer-assisted, dietary goal-setting intervention basic treatment condition was moderately successful in producing dietary improvements but less so in producing biologic or quality-of-life outcomes. Additions of follow-up phone calls or a community resources enhancement component did not produce incremental improvements over this basic intervention.

Physiologic and related behavioral outcomes from the Women's Lifestyle Heart Trial.

The Women's Lifestyle Heart Trial was a small (N = 28) randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of a comprehensive lifestyle self-management program (very low-fat vegetarian diet, stress-management training, exercise, group support, and smoking cessation) on reduction of cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women with coronary heart disease (CHD). Women assigned to the treatment condition (Prime Time) participated in a week-long retreat followed by twice-weekly 4-hour meetings. Endpoints were program adherence; changes in lipid profiles, body mass, blood pressure, hypolipidemic and antihypertensive medications; and quality of life. Risk factor and psychosocial evaluations were conducted at baseline and at 4, 12, and 24 months. Repeated measures analyses of covariance revealed that the dietary, stress management, and physical activity changes made by intervention women were dramatic and lasting. There were significantly greater improvements in the Prime Time condition compared to the usual care control group on body mass, angina symptoms, and quality of life, and a tendency for a greater reduction in blood pressure-lowering medications. Similar patterns were seen in lipids, blood pressure, and lipid-lowering medications, but did not reach significance. These results demonstrate that postmenopausal CHD women can make lasting lifestyle changes, and that these changes may reduce the need for cardiac medications and improve CHD risk factors and quality of life.

The summary of diabetes self-care activities measure: results from 7 studies and a revised scale.

OBJECTIVE: To review reliability, validity, and normative data from 7 different studies, involving a total of 1,988 people with diabetes, and provide a revised version of the Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities (SDSCA) measure. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The SDSCA measure is a brief self-report questionnaire of diabetes self-management that includes items assessing the following aspects of the diabetes regimen: general diet, specific diet, exercise, blood-glucose testing, foot care, and smoking. Normative data (means and SD), inter-item and test-retest reliability, correlations between the SDSCA subscales and a range of criterion measures, and sensitivity to change scores are presented for the 7 different studies (5 randomized interventions and 2 observational studies). RESULTS: Participants were typically older patients, having type 2 diabetes for a number of years, with a slight preponderance of women. The average inter-item correlations within scales were high (mean = 0.47), with the exception of specific diet; test-retest correlations were moderate (mean = 0.40). Correlations with other measures of diet and exercise generally supported the validity of the SDSCA subscales (mean = 0.23). CONCLUSIONS: There are numerous benefits from standardization of measures across studies. The SDSCA questionnaire is a brief yet reliable and valid self-report measure of diabetes self-management that is useful both for research and practice. The revised version and its scoring are presented, and the inclusion of this measure in studies of diabetes self-management is recommended when appropriate.

A social-ecologic approach to assessing support for disease self-management: the Chronic Illness Resources Survey.

We report on the development and validation of an instrument to assess support and resources for chronic illness management (the Chronic Illness Resources Survey; CIRS). The 64-item full instrument and the 29-item Brief CIRS are based on a social-ecologic model, designed to apply across chronic diseases, and assess support and resources at each of seven levels (e.g., family and friends, physician and health care team, neighborhood/community). A prospective evaluation with 123 patients having heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and/or COPD revealed that the overall instrument, as well as subscales and the brief instrument, had acceptable internal consistency, moderate to high test-retest reliability, good construct validity, and moderate concurrent and prospective criterion validity. We discuss potential uses of the CIRS for assessment, feedback, tailoring intervention, and evaluation and make recommendations for future research.

Lifestyle change in women with coronary heart disease: what do we know?

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of death among women in the United States, yet few studies have specifically targeted women who have CHD, and still fewer have examined how behavior and psychosocial factors affect lifestyle change. This article reviews what is known about lifestyle change, with an emphasis on psychosocial factors related to change, in women with CHD. Studies exploring individual lifestyle improvement areas--exercise, nutrition, smoking, and social support--as well as studies of comprehensive lifestyle changes are reviewed. Strong conclusions were precluded because of the paucity of studies, widely variable and inconsistent findings, flawed methodologies, and inadequate reporting of results. Future research is advised to develop and test intervention programs for women with CHD, addressing barriers to participation, lifestyle change patterns, psychosocial and quality of life outcomes, and physiologic change.

Behavioral and psychosocial effects of intensive lifestyle management for women with coronary heart disease.

Females, especially older women, historically have been excluded from coronary heart disease (CHD) studies. The PrimeTime program was a randomized clinical trial designed to study the effects of a comprehensive lifestyle management program (very low-fat vegetarian diet, smoking cessation, stress-management training, moderate exercise, and group support) on changes in behavioral risk factors among postmenopausal women with CHD. The study also explored program effects on four psychosocial clusters: coping with stress, distress, social support, and self-efficacy. The program produced significant behavioral improvements in 4- and 12-months adherence to diet, physical activity, and stress-management in the PrimeTime women compared to the Usual Care (UC) group. In addition, the PrimeTime participants demonstrated improvements relative to UC on psychosocial measures of self-efficacy, perceived social support, and ability to cope with stress. Strengths and weaknesses of the study, and implications for future research are discussed.

Long-term effects and costs of brief behavioural dietary intervention for patients with diabetes delivered from the medical office.

This study evaluated the 12-month follow-up results and costs of a personalized, medical office-based intervention focused on behavioral issues related to dietary self-management. Two hundred and six adults having diabetes attending an internal medicine outpatient clinic visit were randomized to either Usual Care or to Brief Intervention. The single session intervention involved touchscreen computer-assisted assessment that provided immediate feedback on key barriers to dietary self-management, goal setting and problem-solving counselling. Follow-up components included phone calls and videotape intervention relevant to each participant. Brief Intervention produced significantly greater improvement than Usual Care on multiple measures of change in dietary behaviour (e.g., covariate adjusted difference of 2.2% of calories from fat; p = 0.023) and on serum cholesterol levels (covariate adjusted difference of 15 mg/dl; p = 0.002) at 12-month follow-up. There were also significant differences favouring intervention on patient satisfaction (p < 0.02) but not on HbA1c levels. The costs of intervention ($137 per patient) were modest relative to many commonly used practices.

Effects of a brief office-based intervention to facilitate diabetes dietary self-management.

OBJECTIVE: There is a pressing need for brief practical interventions that address diabetes management. Using a randomized design, we evaluated a medical office-based intervention focused on behavioral issues relevant to dietary self-management. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: There were 206 adult diabetes patients randomized to usual care or brief intervention, which consisted of touchscreen computer-assisted assessment to provide immediate feedback on key barriers to dietary self-management, and goal setting and problem-solving counseling for patients. Follow-up components to the single session intervention included phone calls and interactive video or videotape instruction as needed. RESULTS: Multivariate analyses of covariance revealed that the brief intervention produced greater improvements than usual care on a number of measures of dietary behavior (e.g., fewer calories from saturated fat, fewer high-fat eating habits and behaviors) at the 3-month follow-up. There were also significant differences favoring intervention on changes in serum cholesterol levels and patient satisfaction but not on glycosylated hemoglobin. The intervention effects were relatively robust across a variety of patient characteristics, the two participating physicians, and intervention staff members. CONCLUSIONS: If the long-term results are equally positive and generalize to other setting, this intervention could provide a prototype for a feasible cost-effective way to integrate patient views and behavioral management into office-based care for diabetes.

Brief assessments of dietary behavior in field settings.

Our research team is involved in ongoing research in both worksites and medical office settings. These settings offer great potential for reaching individuals who would not otherwise participate in health promotion, but they also place considerable constraints on assessment time and efforts, especially if one's goal is to attract a high and representative proportion of employees or patients. This paper reports on our experience with measures of dietary behavior in these two settings. We found it problematic to collect detailed assessments such as 4-day food records or comprehensive food frequency/history checklists in worksites or medical office settings using population-based samples. Instead, we recommend and provide data on the utility of a dietary-fat screening instrument, and on the Food Habits Questionnaire (FHQ-Kristal, Shattuck, & Henry, 1990), a brief measure of dietary behaviors associated with high-fat eating patterns. The FHQ, in particular, was found to correlate well with other more costly and time-consuming methods of assessment, to be reliable and responsive to intervention effects, and to provide behavioral targets for intervention. The strengths and limitations of these measures for tailoring intervention and assessing outcomes are discussed.

A brief office-based intervention to facilitate diabetes dietary self-management.

There is a pressing need for brief, practical interventions that address diabetes management. We have developed an office-based intervention to prompt both patients and providers to focus on behavioral issues relevant to dietary self-management that is being evaluated in a randomized trial. The intervention is designed to be broadly applicable to the majority of adult diabetes outpatients during medical visits; uses touchscreen computer assessment to provide immediate feedback on key issues to patients and providers just prior to their interaction; and provides goal setting and problem-solving assistance to patients following their meeting with the physician. Follow-up components include phone calls and videotape or interactive video instruction as needed. The program is described, and demographic and behavioral characteristics of participants are presented for the first 95 patients randomized. Initial process results suggest success in producing modest, targeted behavior changes among a broad cross-section of patients. If the long-term results are equally positive, this intervention could provide a prototype for a feasible, cost-effective way to integrate patient views and behavioral management into office-based care for diabetes.

Behavioral research on diabetes at the Oregon Research Institute.

This article overviews the scope and progression of research on behavioral aspects of diabetes over the past decade at the Oregon Research Institute. Our research team has investigated several topics including: (a) conceptual models of self-management; (b) social learning factors associated with regimen adherence; (c) individual and group-based interventions to enhance diabetes self-management; (d) rates and determinants of participation in diabetes education; (e) determinants of glycemic control; and (f) patient models (beliefs) about diabetes and its treatment.We have employed a social learning theory approach to diabetes management, and over the past decade have come to adopt a broader public health perspective that addresses environmental influences on diabetes self-management at multiple levels (e.g. family, health care system, community). This approach has led us to conclude that increased attention should be devoted to the most prevalent types of diabetes, to the behavioral issues that create the most difficulty for the greatest number of patients, and to the social environment in which patients live and diabetes management education takes place. Our research focus has evolved over time and currently emphasizes: (a) assessment and tailoring of intervention based upon the patient's perspective; (b) patient-provider interactions; and (c) brief, low-cost, and system-wide interventions that can be implemented in medical office settings. Lessons learned from this research, the potential disseminability of our findings, and future directions are summarized.

Improving self-care among older patients with type II diabetes: the "Sixty Something..." Study.

A 10-session, self-management training program was designed specifically for persons over 60 years of age having Type II diabetes. It targeted social learning variables, especially problem-solving skills and self-efficacy, found to be related to diabetes self-care in earlier correlational research. One hundred two adults were randomized to immediate or delayed intervention conditions. At posttest, subjects in the immediate intervention condition showed significantly greater reductions in caloric intake and percent of calories from fat than control subjects. The intervention also produced greater weight reductions and increases in the frequency of glucose testing than did the control condition. Improvements among immediate intervention subjects were generally maintained at a 6-month follow-up. Intervention results from subjects receiving delayed intervention closely replicated those for immediate intervention subjects. We conclude that a relatively short-term program can improve self-management skills of older diabetic adults, and that there is an important need for such interventions.

Participation in outpatient diabetes education programs: how many patients take part and how representative are they?

Little research has been conducted on the role of participation in programs that teach diabetes self-management skills. This paper reviews recent studies on diabetes educational programs to determine what is known about participation, and then reports our experience in recruiting patients for a program that teaches diabetes self-care skills to persons age 60 and older. Few studies have reported data on participation rates in such programs, and only one study provided information on characteristics of patients who participated versus those who did not. In our study, patients over age 70, and those with whom we initiated contact by means of a letter from their health care provider, were less likely to participate than were younger patients and those who initiated contact with us. It is recommended that future research include information on the percentage and representativeness of patients who participate in diabetes education programs. Studies should also describe their target population, procedures used to recruit participants, and program characteristics that might affect participation.

Problem solving and diabetes self-care.

An important objective of diabetes care is to provide patients with self-regulation skills. For patients to assume responsibility for their own regimens, they need to have good problem-solving skills to cope with ongoing personal, social, and environmental barriers to adherence. Therefore, a Diabetes Problem Solving Interview for adults was developed and evaluated with 126 non-insulin-dependent outpatients. Interviewers elicited problem-solving strategies patients would use to cope with a variety of situations potentially interfering with dietary, exercise, and glucose testing adherence. Interviews were tape recorded and coded by trained raters to produce scores on both overall problem-solving skill ratings and frequency of use of different types of strategies. Results revealed only minor influences of patient characteristics on problem-solving measures. Prospective analyses revealed that problem-solving measures were significant and independent predictors of levels of dietary and exercise self-care at a 6-month follow-up.

Personal models of diabetes and their relations to self-care activities.

Investigated the personal models of diabetes held by 46 female outpatients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The subjects' mean age was 64 years (range = 46 to 79 years), and 24 subjects were taking insulin. Their personal models were explored by using a comprehensive interview including questions on beliefs and emotions about cause, symptoms, course, treatment, and consequences of their diabetes. Two weeks after their interview, patients provided information about their levels of self-care activities, including exercise, diet, and glucose testing. The interview provided multiple indicators of the personal-model constructs from which four composites were formed assessing cause, symptoms, treatment, and seriousness (a combination of course and consequences). In hierarchical multiple-regression analyses, these dimensions significantly improved the prediction of diet level and marginally improved the prediction of exercise after accounting for the effects of age and insulin taking. The results are discussed in terms of variations in personal models across different patient groups and diseases and the role of personal models in determining self-care behaviors.

Nutrition education and social learning interventions for type II diabetes.

Two diabetes education programs were compared to a control condition. Seventy-eighty type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic outpatients were randomly assigned to nutrition education, nutrition education plus social learning intervention, or wait-list control conditions. Both interventions involved five weekly meetings that focused on reducing calorie intake, increasing dietary fiber, and decreasing fat consumption. The social learning condition also included individualized goal setting and feedback and training in problem-solving and relapse prevention. Within-group analyses and between-group comparisons generally revealed greater improvement in targeted goals (e.g., calorie intake, fat reduction) among intervention conditions than the control condition. There were few differences in more distal measures of outcome such as weight or glycosylated hemoglobin. The social learning component did not improve outcome more than the nutrition education program. Possible reasons for the observed findings and the advantages and limitations of focused time-limited diabetes education efforts are discussed.

Diabetes-specific social learning variables and self-care behaviors among persons with type II diabetes.

This study assessed the relationship between diabetes-specific social learning factors and diabetes self-care. Predictor variables were collected within the categories of knowledge (e.g., behavioral demonstrations, pencil-and-paper tests), beliefs/expectations (e.g., self-efficacy, self-motivation), skills (e.g., problem-solving and refusal skills), and environmental support (e.g., barriers to adherence, family support). Different results emerged across the three areas of the regimen assessed: diet, exercise, and glucose testing. Multiple-regression analyses revealed that the social learning variables consistently improved the prediction of self-care beyond that attributable to demographic variables but that the categories of social learning variables most closely related to self-care varied across regimen areas. These findings suggest that programs to enhance diabetes self-care could beneficially focus on life-style behaviors and employ strategies to increase regimen-related expectations and diabetes-specific social and problem-solving skills.

Social environment and regimen adherence among type II diabetic patients.

We investigated the reliability and predictive validity of several measures of the social environment using a sample of 127 adults with type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes. Of particular interest was a revised scale of family support for performing diabetes self-care behaviors. Across four different aspects of the diabetes regimen, it was consistently found that regimen-specific measures of family support differentiated subjects who were low, medium, or high on adherence better than global family-support scores. Social-environment measures were generally successful in predicting a subject's level of regimen adherence after accounting for variance attributable to demographic factors. The family-support measures were the strongest and most consistent predictors of adherence, but measures of stress and medical-care satisfaction and the interaction between stress and the other social-environment measures also often improved the prediction of a subject's adherence status. These results support the usefulness of measures of the social environment specific to diabetes, and research to investigate other aspects of the social context of regimen adherence is recommended.