Large-scale identification of coregulated enhancer networks in the adult human brain.

Understanding the complexity of the human brain and its functional diversity remain a major challenge. Distinct anatomical regions are involved in an array of processes, including organismal homeostasis, cognitive functions, and susceptibility to neurological pathologies, many of which define our species. Distal enhancers have emerged as key regulatory elements that acquire histone modifications in a cell- and species-specific manner, thus enforcing specific gene expression programs. Here, we survey the epigenomic landscape of promoters and cis-regulatory elements in 136 regions of the adult human brain. We identify a total of 83,553 promoter-distal H3K27ac-enriched regions showing global characteristics of brain enhancers. We use coregulation of enhancer elements across many distinct regions of the brain to uncover functionally distinct networks at high resolution and link these networks to specific neuroglial functions. Furthermore, we use these data to understand the relevance of noncoding genomic variations previously linked to Parkinson's disease incidence.

Olanzapine-induced changes in glucose metabolism are independent of the melanin-concentrating hormone system.

Atypical antipsychotic drugs such as Olanzapine (Ola) induce weight gain and metabolic changes associated with the development of type 2 diabetes. The mechanisms underlying these undesired side-effects are currently unknown. Chagnon et al. showed that the common allele rs7973796 of the prepro-melanin-concentrating hormone (PMCH) gene is associated with a greater body mass index in Ola-treated schizophrenic patients. As PMCH encodes for the orexigenic neuropeptide melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), it was hypothesized that MCH is involved in Ola-induced metabolic changes. We have recently reported that the intragastric infusion of Ola results in hyperglycaemia and insulin resistance in male rats. In order to test in vivo the possible involvement of the PMCH gene in the pathogenesis of Ola side-effects, we administered Ola intragastrically in wild-type (WT) and PMCH knock-out (KO) rats. Our results show that glucose and corticosterone levels, as well as endogenous glucose production, are elevated by the infusion of Ola in both WT and KO animals. Thus, the lack of MCH does not seem to affect the acute effects of Ola on glucose metabolism. On the other hand, these effects might be obliterated by compensatory changes in other hypothalamic systems. In addition, possible modulatory effects of the MCH KO on the long term effects of Ola, i.e. increased adiposity, body weight gain, have not been investigated yet.

Pmch-deficiency in rats is associated with normal adipocyte differentiation and lower sympathetic adipose drive.

The orexigenic neuropeptide melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), a product of Pmch, is an important mediator of energy homeostasis. Pmch-deficient rodents are lean and smaller, characterized by lower food intake, body-, and fat mass. Pmch is expressed in hypothalamic neurons that ultimately are components in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) drive to white and interscapular brown adipose tissue (WAT, iBAT, respectively). MCH binds to MCH receptor 1 (MCH1R), which is present on adipocytes. Currently it is unknown if Pmch-ablation changes adipocyte differentiation or sympathetic adipose drive. Using Pmch-deficient and wild-type rats on a standard low-fat diet, we analyzed dorsal subcutaneous and perirenal WAT mass and adipocyte morphology (size and number) throughout development, and indices of sympathetic activation in WAT and iBAT during adulthood. Moreover, using an in vitro approach we investigated the ability of MCH to modulate 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. Pmch-deficiency decreased dorsal subcutaneous and perirenal WAT mass by reducing adipocyte size, but not number. In line with this, in vitro 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation was unaffected by MCH. Finally, adult Pmch-deficient rats had lower norepinephrine turnover (an index of sympathetic adipose drive) in WAT and iBAT than wild-type rats. Collectively, our data indicate that MCH/MCH1R-pathway does not modify adipocyte differentiation, whereas Pmch-deficiency in laboratory rats lowers adiposity throughout development and sympathetic adipose drive during adulthood.

Melanocortin receptor 4 deficiency affects body weight regulation, grooming behavior, and substrate preference in the rat.

Obesity is caused by an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure and has become a major health-care problem in western society. The central melanocortin system plays a crucial role in the regulation of feeding and energy expenditure, and functional loss of melanocortin receptor 4 (MC4R) is the most common genetic cause of human obesity. In this study, we present the first functional Mc4r knockout model in the rat, resulting from an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis-induced point mutation. In vitro observations revealed impaired membrane-binding and subsequent nonfunctionality of the receptor, whereas in vivo observations showed that functional loss of MC4R increased body weight, food intake, white adipose mass, and changed substrate preference. In addition, intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of Agouti-Related Protein(79-129) (AgRP(79-129)), an MC4R inverse agonist, or Melanotan-II (MTII), an MC4R agonist, did affect feeding behavior in wild-type rats but not in homozygous mutant rats, confirming complete loss of MC4R function in vivo. Finally, ICV administration of MTII induced excessive grooming behavior in wild-type rats, whereas this effect was absent in homozygous mutant rats, indicating that MTII-induced grooming behavior is exclusively regulated via MC4R pathways. Taken together, we expect that the MC4R rat model described here will be a valuable tool for studying monogenic obesity in humans. More specifically, the relative big size and increased cognitive capacity of rats as compared to mice will facilitate complex behavioral studies and detailed mechanistic studies regarding central function of MC4R, both of which ultimately may help to further understand the specific mechanisms that induce obesity during loss of MC4R function.

Homozygous and heterozygous p53 knockout rats develop metastasizing sarcomas with high frequency.

The TP53 tumor suppressor gene is mutated in the majority of human cancers. Inactivation of p53 in a variety of animal models results in early-onset tumorigenesis, reflecting the importance of p53 as a gatekeeper tumor suppressor. We generated a mutant Tp53 allele in the rat using a target-selected mutagenesis approach. Here, we report that homozygosity for this allele results in complete loss of p53 function. Homozygous mutant rats predominantly develop sarcomas with an onset of 4 months of age with a high occurrence of pulmonary metastases. Heterozygous rats develop sarcomas starting at 8 months of age. Molecular analysis revealed that these tumors exhibit a loss-of-heterozygosity of the wild-type Tp53 allele. These unique features make this rat highly complementary to other rodent p53 knockout models and a versatile tool for investigating tumorigenesis processes as well as genotoxic studies.

A hypomorphic mutation in Lpin1 induces progressively improving neuropathy and lipodystrophy in the rat.

The Lpin1 gene encodes the phosphatidate phosphatase (PAP1) enzyme Lipin 1, which plays a critical role in lipid metabolism. In this study we describe the identification and characterization of a rat model with a mutated Lpin1 gene (Lpin1(1Hubr)), generated by N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis. Lpin1(1Hubr) rats are characterized by hindlimb paralysis and mild lipodystrophy that are detectable from the second postnatal week. Sequencing of Lpin1 identified a point mutation in the 5'-end splice site of intron 18 resulting in mis-splicing, a reading frameshift, and a premature stop codon. As this mutation does not induce nonsense-mediated decay, it allows the production of a truncated Lipin 1 protein lacking PAP1 activity. Lpin1(1Hubr) rats developed hypomyelination and mild lipodystrophy rather than the pronounced demyelination and adipocyte defects characteristic of Lpin1(fld/fld) mice, which carry a null allele for Lpin1. Furthermore, biochemical, histological, and molecular analyses revealed that these lesions improve in older Lpin1(1Hubr) rats as compared with young Lpin1(1Hubr) rats and Lpin1(fld/fld) mice. We observed activation of compensatory biochemical pathways substituting for missing PAP1 activity that, in combination with a possible non-enzymatic Lipin 1 function residing outside of its PAP1 domain, may contribute to the less severe phenotypes observed in Lpin1(1Hubr) rats as compared with Lpin1(fld/fld) mice. Although we are cautious in making a direct parallel between the presented rodent model and human disease, our data may provide new insight into the pathogenicity of recently identified human LPIN1 mutations.

Chronic loss of melanin-concentrating hormone affects motivational aspects of feeding in the rat.

Current epidemic obesity levels apply great medical and financial pressure to the strenuous economy of obesity-prone cultures, and neuropeptides involved in body weight regulation are regarded as attractive targets for a possible treatment of obesity in humans. The lateral hypothalamus and the nucleus accumbens shell (AcbSh) form a hypothalamic-limbic neuropeptide feeding circuit mediated by Melanin-Concentrating Hormone (MCH). MCH promotes feeding behavior via MCH receptor-1 (MCH1R) in the AcbSh, although this relationship has not been fully characterized. Given the AcbSh mediates reinforcing properties of food, we hypothesized that MCH modulates motivational aspects of feeding.Here we show that chronic loss of the rat MCH-precursor Pmch decreased food intake predominantly via a reduction in meal size during rat development and reduced high-fat food-reinforced operant responding in adult rats. Moreover, acute AcbSh administration of Neuropeptide-GE and Neuropeptide-EI (NEI), both additional neuropeptides derived from Pmch, or chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of NEI, did not affect feeding behavior in adult pmch(+/+) or pmch(-/-) rats. However, acute administration of MCH to the AcbSh of adult pmch(-/-) rats elevated feeding behavior towards wild type levels. Finally, adult pmch(-/-) rats showed increased ex vivo electrically evoked dopamine release and increased limbic dopamine transporter levels, indicating that chronic loss of Pmch in the rat affects the limbic dopamine system.Our findings support the MCH-MCH1R system as an amplifier of consummatory behavior, confirming this system as a possible target for the treatment of obesity. We propose that MCH-mediated signaling in the AcbSh positively mediates motivational aspects of feeding behavior. Thereby it provides a crucial signal by which hypothalamic neural circuits control energy balance and guide limbic brain areas to enhance motivational or incentive-related aspects of food consumption.

Pmch expression during early development is critical for normal energy homeostasis.

Postnatal development and puberty are times of strong physical maturation and require large quantities of energy. The hypothalamic neuropeptide melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) regulates nutrient intake and energy homeostasis, but the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. Here we use a novel rat knockout model in which the MCH precursor Pmch has been inactivated to study the effects of loss of MCH on energy regulation in more detail. Pmch(-/-) rats are lean, hypophagic, osteoporotic, and although endocrine parameters were changed in pmch(-/-) rats, endocrine dynamics were normal, indicating an adaptation to new homeostatic levels rather than disturbed metabolic mechanisms. Detailed body weight growth and feeding behavior analysis revealed that Pmch expression is particularly important during early rat development and puberty, i.e., the first 8 postnatal weeks. Loss of Pmch resulted in a 20% lower set point for body weight that was determined solely during this period and remained unchanged during adulthood. Although the final body weight is diet dependent, the Pmch-deficiency effect was similar for all diets tested in this study. Loss of Pmch affected energy expenditure in both young and adult rats, although these effects seem secondary to the observed hypophagia. Our findings show an important role for Pmch in energy homeostasis determination during early development and indicate that the MCH receptor 1 system is a plausible target for childhood obesity treatment, currently a major health issue in first world countries.

Improved generation of rat gene knockouts by target-selected mutagenesis in mismatch repair-deficient animals.

BACKGROUND: The laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) is one of the preferred model organisms in physiological and pharmacological research, although the availability of specific genetic models, especially gene knockouts, is limited. N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU)-driven target-selected mutagenesis is currently the most successful method in rats, although it is still very laborious and expensive. RESULTS: As ENU-induced DNA damage is normally recognized by the mismatch repair (MMR) system, we hypothesized that the effectiveness of the target-selected mutagenesis approach could be improved by using a MMR-deficient genetic background. Indeed, Msh6 knockout rats were found to be more sensitive to ENU treatment and the germ line mutation rate was boosted more than two-fold to 1 mutation per 585 kb. In addition, the molecular mutation spectrum was found to be changed in favor of generating knockout-type alleles by approximately 20%, resulting in an overall increase in efficiency of approximately 2.5 fold. The improved effectiveness was demonstrated by high throughput mutation discovery in 70 Mb of sequence in a set of only 310 mutant F1 rats. This resulted in the identification of 89 mutations of which four introduced a premature stopcodon and 64 resulted in amino acid changes. CONCLUSION: Taken together, we show that the use of a MMR-deficient background considerably improves ENU-driven target-selected mutagenesis in the rat, thereby reducing animal use as well as screening costs. The use of a mismatch repair-deficient genetic background for improving mutagenesis and target-selected knockout efficiency is in principle applicable to any organism of interest.

Lack of DNA mismatch repair protein MSH6 in the rat results in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer-like tumorigenesis.

To understand genetic instability in relation to tumorigenesis, experimental animal models have proven very useful. The DNA mismatch repair (MMR) machinery safeguards genomic integrity by repairing mismatches, insertion or deletion loops and responding to genotoxic agents. Here, we describe the functional characterization of a novel rat mutant model in which the MMR gene Msh6 has been genetically inactivated by N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-driven target-selected mutagenesis. This model shows a robust mutator phenotype that is reflected by microsatellite instability and an increased germ line point mutation frequency. Consequently, these rats develop a spectrum of tumors with a high similarity to atypical hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer in humans. The MSH6 knockout rat complements existing models for studying genetic instable tumorigenesis as it provides experimental opportunities that are not available or suboptimal in current models.