Global Deletion of ALDH1A1 and ALDH1A2 Genes Does Not Affect Viability but Blocks Spermatogenesis.

The transition of undifferentiated A spermatogonia to differentiated spermatogonia requires the action of retinoic acid (RA). The synthesis of retinoic acid from retinal in the seminiferous epithelium is a result of the action of aldehyde dehydrogenases termed ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, and ALDH1A3. We used a mouse with a global deletion of the Aldh1a1 gene that is phenotypically normal and the CRE-loxP approach to eliminate Aldh1a2 genes globally and from Sertoli cells and germ cells. The results show that global elimination of Aldh1a1 and Aldh1a2 genes blocks spermatogenesis but does not appear to affect viability. The cell specific elimination of Aldh1a2 gene showed that retinoic acid synthesis by Sertoli cells is required for the initial round of spermatogonial differentiation but that there is no requirement for retinoic acid synthesis by germ cells. In both the global gene deletion and the cell specific gene deletions the maintenance of Aldh1a3 activity could not compensate.

Knockout of Cyp26a1 and Cyp26b1 during postnatal life causes reduced lifespan, dermatitis, splenomegaly, and systemic inflammation in mice.

All-trans-retinoic acid (atRA), the active metabolite of vitamin A, is an essential signaling molecule in all chordates. Global knockouts of the atRA clearing enzymes Cyp26a1 or Cyp26b1 are embryonic lethal. In adult rodents, inhibition of Cyp26a1 and Cyp26b1 increases atRA concentrations and signaling. However, postnatal knockout of Cyp26a1 does not cause a severe phenotype. We hypothesized that Cyp26b1 is the main atRA clearing Cyp in postnatal mammals. This hypothesis was tested by generating tamoxifen-inducible knockout mouse models of Cyp26b1 alone or with Cyp26a1. Both mouse models showed dermatitis, blepharitis, and splenomegaly. Histology showed infiltration of inflammatory cells including neutrophils and T lymphocytes into the skin and hyperkeratosis/hyperplasia of the nonglandular stomach. The mice lacking both Cyp26a1 and Cyp26b1 also had a reduced lifespan, failed to gain weight, and showed fat atrophy. There were significant changes in vitamin A homeostasis. Postnatal knockout of Cyp26b1 resulted in increased atRA concentrations in the skin while the postnatal knockout of both Cyp26a1 and Cyp26b1 resulted in increased atRA concentrations in the liver, serum, skin, spleen, and intestines. This study demonstrates the paramount role of Cyp26b1 in regulating retinoid homeostasis in postnatal life.

Cycles, waves, and pulses: Retinoic acid and the organization of spermatogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Spermatogenesis in mammals is organized in a manner that maximizes sperm production. The central aspect of this organization is the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium that is characterized by an asynchronous repeating series of germ cell associations. These cell associations are the result of a fixed point of entry into the cycle at regular short time intervals and the longer time required for cells to fully differentiate and exit the cycle. OBJECTIVE: This review will examine the current information on the action and metabolism of retinoic acid in the testis, the interaction of retinoic acid (RA) with the cycle and the spermatogenic wave, and the mechanisms that can lead to synchronous spermatogenesis. Finally, the unique applications of synchronous spermatogenesis to the study of the cycle and the mass isolation of specific germ cell populations are described. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retinoic acid metabolism and spermatogonial differentiation have been examined by gene deletions, immunocytochemistry, chemical inhibitors, and mass spectrometry. RESULTS, DISCUSSION, AND CONCLUSION: Both the Sertoli cells and the germ cells have the capacity to synthesize retinoic acid from retinol and in the mouse the entry into the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium, and the subsequent conversion of undifferentiated spermatogonia into differentiating spermatogonia is governed by a peak of RA synthesis occurring at stages VIII-IX of the cycle. Normal asynchronous spermatogenesis can be modified by altering RA levels, and as a result the entire testis will consist of a few closely related stages of the cycle.

The retinoic acid hydroxylase Cyp26a1 has minor effects on postnatal vitamin A homeostasis, but is required for exogenous atRA clearance.

The all-trans-retinoic acid (atRA) hydroxylase Cyp26a1 is essential for embryonic development and may play a key role in regulating atRA clearance also in adults. We hypothesized that loss of Cyp26a1 activity via inducible knockout in juvenile or adult mice would result in decreased atRA clearance and increased tissue atRA concentrations and atRA-related adverse effects. To test these hypotheses, Cyp26a1 was knocked out in juvenile and adult male and female Cyp26a1 floxed mice using standard Cre-Lox technology and tamoxifen injections. Biochemical and histological methods were used to study the effects of global Cyp26a1 knockout. The Cyp26a1 knockout did not result in consistent histopathological changes in any major organs. Cyp26a1-/- mice gained weight normally and exhibited no adverse phenotypes for up to 1 year after loss of Cyp26a1 expression. Similarly, atRA concentrations were not increased in the liver, testes, spleen, or serum of these mice, and the Cyp26a1 knockout did not cause compensatory induction of lecithin:retinol acetyltransferase (Lrat) or retinol dehydrogenase 11 (Rdh11) mRNA or a decrease in aldehyde dehydrogenase 1a1 (Aldh1a1) mRNA in the liver compared with tamoxifen-treated controls. However, the Cyp26a1-/- mice showed increased bone marrow cellularity and decreased frequency of erythroid progenitor cells in the bone marrow consistent with a retinoid-induced myeloid skewing of hematopoiesis. In addition, the Cyp26a1 knockout decreased clearance of exogenous atRA by 70% and increased atRA half-life 6-fold. These findings demonstrate that despite lacking a major impact on endogenous atRA signaling, Cyp26a1 critically contributes as a barrier for exogenous atRA exposure.

Differential localization of histone variant TH2B during the first round compared with subsequent rounds of spermatogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Male germ cells are unique because they express a substantial number of variants of the general DNA binding proteins, known as histones, yet the biological significance of these variants is still unknown. In the present study, we aimed to address the expression pattern of the testis-specific histone H2B variant (TH2B) and the testis-specific histone H2A variant (TH2A) within the neonatal mouse testis. RESULTS: We demonstrate that TH2B and TH2A are present in a testis-enriched for undifferentiated spermatogonia. Co-localization studies with an undifferentiated marker, ZBTB16, revealed that TH2B and ZBTB16 co-localize in the neonatal testis. Upon the appearance of the primary spermatocytes, TH2B no longer co-localized with the ZBTB16 positive spermatogonia but were instead detected within the differentiating spermatogonia. This pattern of expression where TH2B and ZBTB16 no longer co-localize was maintained in the adult testis. CONCLUSION: These findings are in contrast to previous studies, which demonstrated that TH2B and TH2A were found only in adult spermatocytes. Our data are in support of a switch in the expression of these variants following the first round of spermatogonial differentiation. These studies reinforce current understandings that spermatogonia within the neonatal mouse testis are inherently different from those residing within the adult testis.

Sources of all-trans retinal oxidation independent of the aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A isozymes exist in the postnatal testis†.

Despite the essential role of the active metabolite of vitamin A, all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) in spermatogenesis, the enzymes, and cellular populations responsible for its synthesis in the postnatal testis remain largely unknown. The aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A (ALDH1A) family of enzymes residing within Sertoli cells is responsible for the synthesis of atRA, driving the first round of spermatogenesis. Those studies also revealed that the atRA required to drive subsequent rounds of spermatogenesis is possibly derived from the ALDH1A enzymes residing within the meiotic and post-meiotic germ cells. Three ALDH1A isozymes (ALDH1A1, ALDH1A2, and ALDH1A3) are present in the testis. Although, ALDH1A1 is expressed in adult Sertoli cells and is suggested to contribute to the atRA required for the pre-meiotic transitions, ALDH1A2 is proposed to be the essential isomer involved in testicular atRA biosynthesis. In this report, we first examine the requirement for ALDH1A2 via the generation and analysis of a conditional Aldh1a2 germ cell knockout and a tamoxifen-induced Aldh1a2 knockout model. We then utilized the pan-ALDH1A inhibitor (WIN 18446) to test the collective contribution of the ALDH1A enzymes to atRA biosynthesis following the first round of spermatogenesis. Collectively, our data provide the first in vivo evidence demonstrating that animals severely deficient in ALDH1A2 postnatally proceed normally through spermatogenesis. Our studies with a pan-ALDH1A inhibitor (WIN 18446) also suggest that an alternative source of atRA biosynthesis independent of the ALDH1A enzymes becomes available to maintain atRA levels for several spermatogenic cycles following an initial atRA injection.

Retinoic acid receptor signaling is necessary in steroidogenic cells for normal spermatogenesis and epididymal function.

Spermatogenesis in mammals is a very complex, highly organized process, regulated in part by testosterone and retinoic acid (RA). Much is known about how RA and testosterone signaling pathways independently regulate this process, but there is almost no information regarding whether these two signaling pathways directly interact and whether RA is crucial for steroidogenic cell function. This study uses a transgenic mouse line that expresses a dominant-negative form of RA receptor α (RAR-DN) and the steroidogenic cell-specific Cre mouse line, Cyp17iCre, to generate male mice with steroidogenic cells unable to perform RA signaling. Testes of mutant mice displayed increased apoptosis of pachytene spermatocytes, an increased number of macrophages in the interstitium and a loss of advanced germ cells. Additionally, blocking RA signaling in Leydig cells resulted in increased permeability of the blood-testis barrier, decreased levels of the steroidogenic enzyme cytochrome P450 17a1 and decreased testosterone levels. Surprisingly, the epididymides of the mutant mice also displayed an abnormal phenotype. This study demonstrates that RA signaling is required in steroidogenic cells for their normal function and, thus, for male fertility.

Leydig cell genes change their expression and association with polysomes in a stage-specific manner in the adult mouse testis.

Spermatogenesis in mammals occurs in a very highly organized manner within the seminiferous epithelium regulated by different cell types in the testis. Testosterone produced by Leydig cells regulates blood-testis barrier formation, meiosis, spermiogenesis, and spermiation. However, it is unknown whether Leydig cell function changes with the different stages of the seminiferous epithelium. This study utilized the WIN 18,446 and retinoic acid (RA) treatment regime combined with the RiboTag mouse methodology to synchronize male germ cell development and allow for the in vivo mapping of the Leydig cell translatome across the different stages of one cycle of the seminiferous epithelium. Using microarrays analysis, we identified 11 Leydig cell-enriched genes that were expressed in stage-specific manner such as the glucocorticoid synthesis and transport genes, Cyp21a1 and Serpina6. In addition, there were nine Leydig cell transcripts that change their association with polysomes in correlation with the different stages of the spermatogenic cycle including Egr1. Interestingly, the signal intensity of EGR1 and CYP21 varied among Leydig cells in the adult asynchronous testis. However, testosterone levels across the different stages of germ cell development did not cycle. These data show, for the first time, that Leydig cell gene expression changes in a stage-specific manner during the cycle of the seminiferous epithelium and indicate that a heterogeneous Leydig cell population exists in the adult mouse testis.

Asymmetric unwrapping of nucleosomal DNA propagates asymmetric opening and dissociation of the histone core.

The nucleosome core particle (NCP) is the basic structural unit for genome packaging in eukaryotic cells and consists of DNA wound around a core of eight histone proteins. DNA access is modulated through dynamic processes of NCP disassembly. Partly disassembled structures, such as the hexasome (containing six histones) and the tetrasome (four histones), are important for transcription regulation in vivo. However, the pathways for their formation have been difficult to characterize. We combine time-resolved (TR) small-angle X-ray scattering and TR-FRET to correlate changes in the DNA conformations with composition of the histone core during salt-induced disassembly of canonical NCPs. We find that H2A-H2B histone dimers are released sequentially, with the first dimer being released after the DNA has formed an asymmetrically unwrapped, teardrop-shape DNA structure. This finding suggests that the octasome-to-hexasome transition is guided by the asymmetric unwrapping of the DNA. The link between DNA structure and histone composition suggests a potential mechanism for the action of proteins that alter nucleosome configurations such as histone chaperones and chromatin remodeling complexes.

Characterizing the Spermatogonial Response to Retinoic Acid During the Onset of Spermatogenesis and Following Synchronization in the Neonatal Mouse Testis.

Retinoic acid (RA), the active metabolite of vitamin A, is known to be required for the differentiation of spermatogonia. The first round of spermatogenesis initiates in response to RA and occurs in patches along the length of the seminiferous tubule. However, very little is known about the individual differentiating spermatogonial populations and their progression through the cell cycle due to the heterogeneous nature of the onset of spermatogenesis. In this study, we utilized WIN 18,446 and RA as tools to generate testes enriched with different populations of spermatogonia to further investigate 1) the undifferentiated to differentiating spermatogonial transition, 2) the progression of the differentiating spermatogonia through the cell cycle, and 3) Sertoli cell number in response to altered RA levels. WIN 18,446/RA-treated neonatal mice were used to determine when synchronous S phases occurred in the differentiating spermatogonial population following treatment. Five differentiating spermatogonial S phase windows were identified between spermatogonial differentiation and formation of preleptotene spermatocytes. In addition, a slight increase in Sertoli cell number was observed following RA treatment, possibly implicating a role for RA in Sertoli cell cycle progression. This study has enhanced our understanding of the spermatogonial populations present in the neonatal testis during the onset of spermatogenesis by mapping the cell cycle kinetics of both the undifferentiated and the differentiating spermatogonial populations and identifying the precise timing of when specific individual differentiating spermatogonial populations are enriched within the testis following synchrony, thus providing an essential tool for further study of the differentiating spermatogonia.

A basic domain in the histone H2B N-terminal tail is important for nucleosome assembly by FACT.

Nucleosome assembly in vivo requires assembly factors, such as histone chaperones, to bind to histones and mediate their deposition onto DNA. In yeast, the essential histone chaperone FACT (FAcilitates Chromatin Transcription) functions in nucleosome assembly and H2A-H2B deposition during transcription elongation and DNA replication. Recent studies have identified candidate histone residues that mediate FACT binding to histones, but it is not known which histone residues are important for FACT to deposit histones onto DNA during nucleosome assembly. In this study, we report that the histone H2B repression (HBR) domain within the H2B N-terminal tail is important for histone deposition by FACT. Deletion of the HBR domain causes significant defects in histone occupancy in the yeast genome, particularly at HBR-repressed genes, and a pronounced increase in H2A-H2B dimers that remain bound to FACT in vivo Moreover, the HBR domain is required for purified FACT to efficiently assemble recombinant nucleosomes in vitro We propose that the interaction between the highly basic HBR domain and DNA plays an important role in stabilizing the nascent nucleosome during the process of histone H2A-H2B deposition by FACT.

Revealing transient structures of nucleosomes as DNA unwinds.

The modulation of DNA accessibility by nucleosomes is a fundamental mechanism of gene regulation in eukaryotes. The nucleosome core particle (NCP) consists of 147 bp of DNA wrapped around a symmetric octamer of histone proteins. The dynamics of DNA packaging and unpackaging from the NCP affect all DNA-based chemistries, but depend on many factors, including DNA positioning sequence, histone variants and modifications. Although the structure of the intact NCP has been studied by crystallography at atomic resolution, little is known about the structures of the partially unwrapped, transient intermediates relevant to nucleosome dynamics in processes such as transcription, DNA replication and repair. We apply a new experimental approach combining contrast variation with time-resolved small angle X-ray scattering (TR-SAXS) to determine transient structures of protein and DNA constituents of NCPs during salt-induced disassembly. We measure the structures of unwrapping DNA and monitor protein dissociation from Xenopus laevis histones reconstituted with two model NCP positioning constructs: the Widom 601 sequence and the sea urchin 5S ribosomal gene. Both constructs reveal asymmetric release of DNA from disrupted histone cores, but display different patterns of protein dissociation. These kinetic intermediates may be biologically important substrates for gene regulation.

The impact of solubility and electrostatics on fibril formation by the H3 and H4 histones.

The goal of this study was to examine fibril formation by the heterodimeric eukaryotic histones (H2A-H2B and H3-H4) and homodimeric archaeal histones (hMfB and hPyA1). The histone fold dimerization motif is an obligatorily domain-swapped structure comprised of two fused helix:ß-loop:helix motifs. Domain swapping has been proposed as a mechanism for the evolution of protein oligomers as well as a means to form precursors in the formation of amyloid-like fibrils. Despite sharing a common fold, the eukaryotic histones of the core nucleosome and archaeal histones fold by kinetic mechanisms of differing complexity with transient population of partially folded monomeric and/or dimeric species. No relationship was apparent between fibrillation propensity and equilibrium stability or population of kinetic intermediates. Only H3 and H4, as isolated monomers and as a heterodimer, readily formed fibrils at room temperature, and this propensity correlates with the significantly lower solubility of these polypeptides. The fibrils were characterized by ThT fluorescence, FTIR, and far-UV CD spectroscopies and electron microscopy. The helical histone fold comprises the protease-resistant core of the fibrils, with little or no protease protection of the poorly structured N-terminal tails. The highly charged tails inhibit fibrillation through electrostatic repulsion. Kinetic studies indicate that H3 and H4 form a co-fibril, with simultaneous incorporation of both histones. The potential impact of H3 and H4 fibrillation on the cytotoxicity of extracellular histones and α-synuclein-mediated neurotoxicity and fibrillation is considered.

Kinetic folding of Haloferax volcanii and Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductases: haloadaptation by unfolded state destabilization at high ionic strength.

Salts affect protein stability by multiple mechanisms (e.g., the Hofmeister effect, preferential hydration, electrostatic effects and weak ion binding). These mechanisms can affect the stability of both the native state and the unfolded state. Previous equilibrium stability studies demonstrated that KCl stabilizes dihydrofolate reductases (DHFRs) from Escherichia coli (ecDHFR, E. coli DHFR) and Haloferax volcanii (hvDHFR1, H. volcanii DHFR encoded by the hdrA gene) with similar efficacies, despite adaptation to disparate physiological ionic strengths (0.2 M versus 2 M). Kinetic studies can provide insights on whether equilibrium effects reflect native state stabilization or unfolded state destabilization. Similar kinetic mechanisms describe the folding of urea-denatured ecDHFR and hvDHFR1: a 5-ms stopped-flow burst-phase species that folds to the native state through two sequential intermediates with relaxation times of 0.1-3 s and 25-100 s. The latter kinetic step is very similar to that observed for the refolding of hvDHFR1 from low ionic strength. The unfolding of hvDHFR1 at low ionic strength is relatively slow, suggesting kinetic stabilization as observed for some thermophilic enzymes. Increased KCl concentrations slow the urea-induced unfolding of ecDHFR and hvDHFR1, but much less than expected from equilibrium studies. Unfolding rates extrapolated to 0 M denaturant, k(unf)(H(2)O), are relatively independent of ionic strength, demonstrating that the KCl-induced stabilization of ecDHFR and hvDHFR1 results predominantly from destabilization of the unfolded state. This supports the hypothesis from previous equilibrium studies that haloadaptation harnesses the effects of elevated salt concentrations on the properties of the aqueous solvent to enhance protein stability.

Stability and folding mechanism of mesophilic, thermophilic and hyperthermophilic archael histones: the importance of folding intermediates.

The equilibrium stabilities to guanidinium chloride (GdmCl)-induced denaturation and kinetic folding mechanisms have been characterized for three archael histones: hFoB from the mesophile Methanobacterium formicicum; hMfB from the thermophile Methanothermus fervidus; and hPyA1 from the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus strain GB-3a. These histones are homodimers of 67 to 69 residues per monomer. The equilibrium unfolding transitions, as measured by far-UV circular dichroism (CD) are highly reversible, two-state processes. The mesophilic hFoB is very unstable and requires approximately 1 M trimethyl-amine-N-oxide (TMAO) to completely populate the native state. The thermophilic histones are more stable, with deltaG degrees (H2O) values of 14 and 16 kcal mol(-1) for hMfB and hPyA1, respectively. The kinetic folding of hFoB and hPyA1 are two-state processes, with no detectable transient kinetic intermediates. For hMfB, there is significant development of CD signal in the stopped-flow dead time, indicative of the formation of a monomeric intermediate, which then folds/associates in a single, second-order step to form the native dimer. While the equilibrium stability to chemical denaturation correlates very well with host growth temperature, there is no simple relationship between folding rates and stability for the archael histones. In the absence of denaturant, the log of the unfolding rates correlate with equilibrium stability. The folding/association of the moderately stable hMfB is the most rapid, with a rate constant in the absence of GdmCl of 3 x 10(6) M(-1) s(-1), compared to 9 x 10(5) M(-1) s(-1) for the more stable hPyA1. It appears that the formation of the hMfB burst-phase monomeric ensemble serves to enhance folding efficiency, rather than act as a kinetic trap. The folding mechanism of the archael histones is compared to the folding of other intertwined, segment-swapped, alpha-helical, DNA-binding dimers (ISSADD), including the eukaryotic heterodimeric histones, which fold more rapidly. The importance of monomeric and dimeric kinetic intermediates in accelerating ISSADD folding reactions is discussed.

Folding mechanism of FIS, the intertwined, dimeric factor for inversion stimulation.

FIS, the factor for inversion stimulation, from Escherichia coli and other enteric bacteria, is an interwined alpha-helical homodimer. Size exclusion chromatography and static light scattering measurements demonstrated that FIS is predominately a stable dimer at the concentrations (1-10 microM monomer) and buffer conditions employed in this study. The folding and unfolding of FIS were studied with both equilibrium and kinetic methods by circular dichroism using urea and guanidinium chloride (GdmCl) as the perturbants. The equilibrium folding is reversible and well-described by a two-state folding model, with stabilities at 10 degrees C of 15.2 kcal mol(-1) in urea and 13.5 kcal mol(-1) in GdmCl. The kinetic data are consistent with a two-step folding reaction where the two unfolded monomers associate to a dimeric intermediate within the mixing time for the stopped-flow instrument (<5 ms), and a slower, subsequent folding of the dimeric intermediate to the native dimer. Fits of the burst phase amplitudes as a function of denaturant showed that the free energy for the formation of the dimeric intermediate constitutes the majority of the stability of the folding (9.6 kcal mol(-1) in urea and 10.5 kcal mol(-1) in GdmCl). Folding-to-unfolding double jump kinetic experiments were also performed to monitor the formation of native dimer as a function of folding delay times. The data here demonstrate that the dimeric intermediate is obligatory and on-pathway. The folding mechanism of FIS, when compared to other intertwined, alpha-helical, homodimers, suggests that a transient kinetic dimeric intermediate may be a common feature of the folding of intertwined, segment-swapped, alpha-helical dimers.