A perspective on the safety of parabens as preservatives in wound care products.

Antimicrobial and/or preservative ingredients incorporated in wound care products are subjected to certain safety restrictions. However, several of those agents, and paraben preservatives in particular, have been criticised. Conflicting reports on the potential of parabens to induce allergic contact dermatitis, and their assumed oestrogen-like activity, raised public health concerns about their overall safety. Here, we seek to provide a balanced perspective on the most significant purported adverse health effects, and thereby allay the many misconceptions regarding the safety of parabens. Extensive and long-term monitoring of paraben allergy frequencies illustrate that allergic reactions are quite uncommon, especially when compared with other antimicrobial and preservative agents. The estrogenic potential of parabens was illustrated to be far less potent than that of natural oestrogen receptor ligands, and the etiological significance of their presence in human tissue has not been established. The general consensus based on investigations by both the scientific community and regulatory agencies indicates that, with current safety regulations regarding their use in place, this effective and well-documented group of preservatives should not warrant drastic measures to replace them. As such, despite the ongoing concern, it is indicated that, when used at typical concentrations, parabens are unlikely to affect human health.

Novel thiazolidinedione-hydroxamates as inhibitors of Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence factor Zmp1.

Zinc metalloprotease 1 (Zmp1) is an extracellular enzyme, which has been found essential for the intracellular survival and pathogenesis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In this work, we designed and synthesized a series of novel thiazolidinedione-hydroxamates and evaluated in silico their drug-likeness behavior. Then, their inhibitory properties towards a recombinant Zmp1 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis were analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS. Nine of the tested compounds were found to inhibit the enzymatic reaction more effectively than the generic metalloprotease inhibitor phosphoramidon. Furthermore, the synthesized thiazolidinedione-hydroxamate hybrids were evaluated for their in vitro antimycobacterial activity and acute cytotoxicity using whole-cell assays. Results showed that none of the hybrids exhibited acute cytotoxicity against RAW264.7 macrophages. Whereas extracellular antimycobacterial activity was limited, RAW264.7 macrophage infection results showed that a majority of the hybrids inhibited the intracellular growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis at a concentration of 100 and 10 µM. The thiazolidinedione-hydroxamate compound 2n was considered to be the best candidate of the evaluated library.

The synthesis and in vitro biological evaluation of novel fluorinated tetrahydrobenzo[j]phenanthridine-7,12-diones against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis (TB) still has a major impact on public health. In order to efficiently eradicate this life-threatening disease, the exploration of novel anti-TB drugs is of paramount importance. As part of our program to design new 2-azaanthraquinones with anti-mycobacterial activity, various "out-of-plane" tetrahydro- and octahydrobenzo[j]phenanthridinediones were synthesized. In this study, the scaffold of the most promising hits was further optimized in an attempt to improve the bioactivity and to decrease enzymatic degradation. The rudiment bio-evaluation of a small library of fluorinated tetrahydrobenzo[j]phenanthridine-7,12-dione derivatives indicated no significant improvement of the bio-activity against intracellular and extracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Though, the derivatives showed an acceptable toxicity against J774A.1 macrophages and early signs of genotoxicity were absent. All derivatives showed to be metabolic stabile in the presence of both phase I and phase II murine or human microsomes. Finally, the onset of reactive oxygen species within Mtb after exposure to the derivatives was measured by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Results showed that the most promising fluorinated derivative is still a possible candidate for the subversive inhibition of mycothione reductase.

Opportunities for Overcoming Mycobacterium tuberculosis Drug Resistance: Emerging Mycobacterial Targets and Host-Directed Therapy.

The ever-increasing incidence of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections has invigorated the focus on the discovery and development of novel treatment options. The discovery and investigation of essential mycobacterial targets is of utmost importance. In addition to the discovery of novel targets, focusing on non-lethal pathways and the use of host-directed therapies has gained interest. These adjunctive treatment options could not only lead to increased antibiotic susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but also have the potential to avoid the emergence of drug resistance. Host-directed therapies, on the other hand, can also reduce the associated lung pathology and improve disease outcome. This review will provide an outline of recent opportunities.

Optimization and Characterization of a Galleria mellonella Larval Infection Model for Virulence Studies and the Evaluation of Therapeutics Against Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of bacterial pneumonia. Infection is linked to high morbidity and mortality rates and antibiotic resistance within this pathogen is on the rise. Therefore, there is a need for novel antimicrobial therapies. To lower the time and costs of the drug discovery process, alternative in vivo models should be considered. As such, Galleria mellonella larvae can be of great value. The larval immunity consisting of several types of haemocytes is remarkably similar to the human innate immune system. Furthermore, these larvae don't require specific housing, are cheap and are easy to handle. In this study, the use of a G. mellonella infection model to study early pneumococcal infections and treatment is proposed. Firstly, the fitness of this model to study pneumococcal virulence factors is confirmed using streptococcal strains TIGR4, ATCC®49619, D39 and its capsule-deficient counterpart R6 at different inoculum sizes. The streptococcal polysaccharide capsule is considered the most important virulence factor without which streptococci are unable to sustain an in vivo infection. Kaplan-Meier survival curves showed indeed a higher larval survival after infection with streptococcal strain R6 compared to strain D39. Then, the infection was characterized by determining the number of haemocytes, production of oxygen free radicals and bacterial burden at several time points during the course of infection. Lastly, treatment of infected larvae with the standard antibiotics amoxicillin and moxifloxacin was evaluated. Treatment has proven to have a positive outcome on the course of infection, depending on the administered dosage. These data imply that G. mellonella larvae can be used to evaluate antimicrobial therapies against S. pneumoniae, apart from using the larval model to study streptococcal properties. The in-depth knowledge acquired regarding this model, makes it more suitable for use in future research.

Synthesis and antitubercular activity of 1- and 3-substituted benzo[g]isoquinoline-5,10-diones.

In this study, a small library of twenty benzo[g]isoquinoline-5,10-diones were synthesized in a novel straightforward approach, starting from 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (vitamin K). An intramolecular Heck reaction of a N-vinylacetamide was a crucial step in the synthetic route, at which the combination of cesium carbonate and a bulky, electron rich trialkylphosphine (tBuCy2P.HBF4) provided high 6-endo-trig selectivity. The anti-tubercular activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra and acute cytotoxicity against J774 A.1 macrophages were studied. From the structure activity relationship, it could be derived that in general the substitution of position 3 yielded analogs with a higher antitubercular potency. Among these, two analogs, 27a and 27b, showed remarkable activity with minimal inhibition concentrations of respectively 28.92 µM and 1.05 µM, and acute cytotoxic concentrations of >128 µM and 34.85 µM. In addition, the analogs and their possible metabolites were evaluated using a Vitotox™ assay to study the possibility of genotoxicity. Results indicated that none of the evaluated analogs and their possible metabolites showed early signs of genotoxicity.

Synthesis and in vitro investigation of halogenated 1,3-bis(4-nitrophenyl)triazenide salts as antitubercular compounds.

The diverse pharmacological properties of the diaryltriazenes have sparked the interest to investigate their potential to be repurposed as antitubercular drug candidates. In an attempt to improve the antitubercular activity of a previously constructed diaryltriazene library, eight new halogenated nitroaromatic triazenides were synthesized and underwent biological evaluation. The potency of the series was confirmed against the Mycobacterium tuberculosis lab strain H37Ra, and for the most potent derivative, we observed a minimal inhibitory concentration of 0.85 µm. The potency of the triazenide derivatives against M. tuberculosis H37Ra was found to be highly dependent on the nature of the halogenated phenyl substituent and less dependent on cationic species used for the preparation of the salts. Although the inhibitory concentration against J774A.1 macrophages was observed at 3.08 µm, the cellular toxicity was not mediated by the generation of nitroxide intermediate as confirmed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, whereas no in vitro mutagenicity could be observed for the new halogenated nitroaromatic triazenides when a trifluoromethyl substituent was present on both the aryl moieties.

Design, synthesis and antitubercular potency of 4-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-ones.

In this study, a 50-membered library of substituted 4-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-ones and two closely related analogues was designed, scored in-silico for drug likeness and subsequently synthesized. Thirteen derivatives, all sharing a common 3-phenyl substituent showed minimal inhibitory concentrations against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra below 10 µM and against Mycobacterium bovis AN5A below 15 µM but were inactive against faster growing mycobacterial species. None of these selected derivatives showed significant acute toxicity against MRC-5 cells or early signs of genotoxicity in the Vitotox™ assay at the active concentration range. The structure activity study relation provided some insight in the further favourable substitution pattern at the 4-hydroxyquinolin-2(1H)-one scaffold and finally 6-fluoro-4-hydroxy-3-phenylquinolin-2(1H)-one (38) was selected as the most promising member of the library with a MIC of 3.2 µM and a CC50 against MRC-5 of 67.4 µM.

Optimization and characterization of a murine lung infection model for the evaluation of novel therapeutics against Burkholderia cenocepacia.

Several B. cenocepacia mouse models are available to study the pulmonary infection by this Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC) species. However, a characterized B. cenocepacia mouse model to evaluate the efficacy of potential new antibacterial therapies is not yet described. Therefore, we optimized and validated the course of infection (i.e. bacterial proliferation in lung, liver and spleen) and the efficacy of a reference antibiotic, tobramycin (TOB), in a mouse lung infection model. Furthermore, the local immune response and histological changes in lung tissue were studied during infection and treatment. A reproducible lung infection was observed when immunosuppressed BALB/c mice were infected with B. cenocepacia LMG 16656. Approximately 50 to 60% of mice infected with this BCC species demonstrated a dissemination to liver and spleen. TOB treatment resulted in a two log reduction in lung burden, prevented dissemination of B. cenocepacia to liver and spleen and significantly reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines. As this mouse model is characterized by a reproducible course of infection and efficacy of TOB, it can be used as a tool for the in vivo evaluation of new antibacterial therapies.