Nutrient digestibility in food waste ingredients for Pekin and Muscovy ducks.

Food wastes are valuable resources to be recycled into new added-value products through animal production. The determination of energy and digestibility values of these wastes is essential for feed formulation. Corn, soybean meal (SBM), and a total of nine industrial food waste ingredients were tested in a comparative metabolic study in Pekin and Muscovy ducklings at two different ages during growth. The "precision-feeding" technique was employed to establish DM, fat, and fiber digestibility as well as retention of N and energy (AME, AMEn in Pekins; and AME, AMEn, TME, TMEn in Muscovies) for the 11 ingredients. For Pekin at 3 wk of age, the AMEn of peanuts, tofu, pogo, granola, waste diet, bread, corn, SBM, okara, and brewers grains were 5,141, 4,019, 3,971, 3,908, 3,141, 2,279, 1,572, and 1,442 kcal/kg, respectively. For Pekin at 6 wk of age, the AMEn of peanuts, pogo, tofu, granola, waste diet, bread, corn, SBM, and okara were 5,340, 4,327, 4,254, 4,079, 3,567, 3,302, 3,201, 2,416, and 1,562 kcal/kg, respectively. For Muscovy at 7 wk of age, the TMEn of peanuts, pogo, granola, waste diet, corn, tofu, bread, SBM, okara, and peanut skin were 5,207, 4,321, 4,057, 3,733, 3,233, 3,180, 3,084, 2,236, 1,575, and 904 kcal/kg, respectively. For Muscovy at 11 wk of age, the TMEn of peanuts, pogo, granola, tofu, waste diet, corn, bread, SBM, okara, and brewers grains were 5,077, 4,137, 4,025, 3,921, 3,586, 3,254, 3,123, 2,245, 2,007, and 1,392 kcal/kg, respectively. Nitrogen retention was significantly (P < 0.05) higher for SBM, tofu, okara, pogo, peanuts, and the food waste diet and lower for bread, corn, granola, brewers grains, and peanut skin. Dry matter digestibility was high for granola, pogo, corn, bread, and the food waste diet. Fat digestibility was generally the same for all the ingredients and was consistently over 97%. Bread neutral detergent fiber (NDF) was significantly (P < 0.05) the most digestible (88.92% NDF digestibility), as it consisted of 96.29% hemicellulose, whereas okara NDF was significantly (P < 0.05) the least digestible (26.94% NDF digestibility) and contained only 14.38% hemicellulose. Peanut skins and SBM with 30% hemicellulose showed only slightly higher digestibilities of NDF. The results of this study establish reliable data for formulation of duck diets using the tested industrial food waste ingredients as well as corn and SBM in both Pekin and Muscovy ducklings at two different ages during growth to market weight.

Apparent digestibility of protein and amino acids in broiler chickens fed a corn-soybean diet supplemented with microbial phytase.

The effect of microbial phytase supplementation on CP and amino acid (AA) digestibility was investigated in a 28-d trial using 360 sexed, day-old broiler chickens fed corn-soybean meal diets. The experimental design was a completely randomized one with a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. The variables included P and Ca levels and phytase: P and Ca levels were: normal P-normal Ca [0.45% available P (Pa), 1.0% Ca], low P-normal Ca (0.35% Pa, 1.0% Ca), and low P-low Ca (0.35 Pa and 0.6% Ca); and phytase at 0 and 600 U/kg diet. Phytase supplementation increased body weight gain (P < 0.014) and feed intake (P < 0.004) at 19 d in male chickens; in females, phytase increased (P < 0.012) only body weight gain at 19 d. The low P-normal Ca diet reduced (P < 0.05) feed intake and body weight gain in both sexes at 7, 14, and 19 d, compared to the normal P-normal Ca diet; the reduction of Ca in the low P diet prevented the above depression, resulting in body weight gain and feed intake to a level comparable to that of the normal P-normal Ca diet. Microbial phytase supplementation had no effect (P < 0.065) on the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of CP or any AA except Met and Phe in male broiler chickens. In females, adding phytase increased the AID of all AA except Lys, Met, Phe, and Pro. The low P-normal Ca diet reduced (P < 0.05) the AID of Phe, Asp, and Ser in male chickens and reduced the AID of all the AA except Met and Pro in females compared to the normal P-normal Ca diet. The reduction of Ca in the low P diet prevented the depression of the AID of the AA caused by the low P-normal Ca diet, resulting in AID of AA having a level comparable to that of the normal P-normal Ca diet in both sexes. Phytase supplementation did not have any effect (P > 0.05) on apparent "fecal" digestibility (AFD) of CP or any of the AA in male chickens; however, in female chickens it increased the AFD of Thr, Asp, Glu, and Ser. In summary, phytase supplementation increased growth performance in both sexes; increased AID and AFD of most of the AA, particularly in female chickens. The optimum growth performance and AA digestibilities were obtained with the lowest input of resources, in the low P-low Ca diet supplemented with microbial phytase.

Efficacy of supplemental microbial phytase at different dietary calcium levels on growth performance and mineral utilization of broiler chickens.

A 3-wk feeding trial with 240 sexed, day-old broiler chickens was conducted to determine the efficacy of microbial phytase at different levels of dietary Ca on performance and utilization of minerals in broiler chickens fed a low-P corn-soybean diet. The experimental design was a 3 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments; Ca at 0.6, 1.0, and 1.25% and phytase at 0 and 600 phytase U/kg diet. Phytase supplementation, regardless of Ca level, increased (P < or = 0.005) feed intake, (P < or = 0.0001) body weight, and (P < or = 0.025) feed efficiency at 21 d; the optimum levels of body weight, feed intake, and feed efficiency were obtained with low (0.6%) dietary Ca plus phytase. Retentions of P, Ca, and N were increased (P < or = 0.05) by phytase supplementation. Although maximum retentions of P and N were obtained at the 1.0 and 1.25% Ca levels, respectively, they were not significantly different from the values obtained at 0.6% Ca. The increasing level of dietary Ca decreased plasma P ( P < or = 0.05) and Cu (P < or = 0.06). Phytase supplementation had the opposite effect; i.e., increased plasma P (P < or = 0.03) and Cu (P < or = 0.02). The maximum level of plasma P was obtained with phytase at the 1.0% Ca level, but this value was not significantly different from the value obtained with phytase at the 0.6% Ca level. Phytase supplementation increased (P < 0.04) the ash content of both tibia head and shaft but had no effect on mineral contents in the ash. The optimum level of ash content was observed with the 0.06% Ca diet plus phytase. The results show that microbial phytase supplementation to a low P diet improved growth performance and mineral utilization in broiler chickens. Dietary Ca levels had a significant effect on the response to phytase; the optimum growth performance and mineral utilization were achieved at the low (0.6%) level of dietary Ca supplemented with phytase.

The effects of supplemental microbial phytase on the performance and utilization of dietary calcium, phosphorus, copper, and zinc in broiler chickens fed corn-soybean diets.

A 3-wk feeding trial with 180 sexed day-old broiler chickens was conducted to study the efficacy of microbial phytase (Natuphos 1000) on growth performance, relative retention of P, Ca, Cu, and Zn, and mineral contents of plasma and bone. Treatments involved a normal P level corn-soybean diet, a low-P diet, and a low-P plus phytase (600 phytase units/kg) diet. Phytase supplementation increased (P < or = 0.05) body weight in male and female chickens by 13.2 and 5.8%, respectively, at 21 d. The improvements yielded body weights comparable to those obtained on the normal P diet. Phytase supplementation overcame (P < or = 0.05) the depression of feed intake observed on the low-P diet. Treatments had no effect on feed:gain ratio. Phytase supplementation of the low-P diet increased (P < or = 0.05) the relative retention of total P, Ca, Cu, and Zn by 12.5, 12.2, 19.3, and 62.3 percentage units, respectively, in male chickens. Microbial phytase increased the plasma P by 15.7% and reduced (P < or = 0.05) the Ca concentration by 34.1%, but had no effect on plasma concentrations of Cu or Zn. Phytase supplementation increased the percentage ash in both head and shaft portions of dry, fat-free tibia bone to a level comparable to that of the normal-P diet. Phytase supplementation had no effect on the concentration of any of the minerals measured in whole tibia ash but did increase (P < or = 0.05) the DM percentage of P and Ca min tibia head of male chickens by 0.65 and 1.4 percentage units, respectively. These results show that microbial phytase supplementation of a low-P diet increased growth and relative retention of total P, Ca, Cu, and Zn and improved bone mineralization in broiler chickens.

Influence of dietary soybean trypsin inhibitors and DL-ethionine on sulfur amino acid adequacy of diets for young rats.

Weanling male Wistar rats were fed 20% protein diets based on casein or either of two combinations of soy protein isolate and ground raw soy providing three levels of soybean trypsin inhibitors (SBTI; 0, 448 and 808 mg of trypsin inhibited per 100 g of diet respectively). DL-ethionine was included at three levels (0, 0.05% and 0.10%) with each level of SBTI. After 4, 8 and 12 weeks of ad libitum feeding, diets containing SBTI without DL-ethionine were associated with decreases in weight gain, feed efficiency, serum cholesterol and serum urea nitrogen. Higher levels of triglycerides, glutamate pyruvate transaminase (SGPT) and altered serum free amino acid levels were also found. Increased dietary levels of DL-ethionine also resulted in deficits in growth and feed efficiency, decreased serum cholesterol, increased SGPT and similar alterations in serum free amino acids. Combination of dietary SBTI with DL-ethionine resulted in even greater growth deficits and serum cholesterol decreases as well as increases in SGPT and serum triglycerides and changes in serum free amino acid levels. Methionine deficiency in the young rats fed SBTI and DL-ethionine was indicated by the changes in serum amino acids and growth deficits. Moderation of some effects over the 12 week test period suggested decreased methionine requirements in the older rats.

Research note: eggshell quality in Japanese quail fed different fatty acids.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the effects of diets containing 3% palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) on the shell quality of eggs of Japanese quail. Each diet was fed to 10 hens maintained individually in wire quail laying cages. There was no difference (P greater than .05) in feed consumption between hens fed Diets OA and LA, but hens of both groups consumed less (P less than .05) feed than those fed Diet PA. Egg weight, shell weight, and thickness of shell plus membrane were not influenced by dietary treatment (P greater than .05). However, specific gravity of eggs from hens fed Diet OA was significantly higher (P less than .05) than that of eggs from those fed either Diet PA or Diet LA. Comparison of these data with hatchability data obtained in a previous experiment conducted under similar conditions suggests that the differences in hatchability would not be explained by differences in eggshell quality.

Effect of feeding palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids to Japanese quail hens (Coturnix coturnix japonica). 2. Maternal diets and stage of incubation on the lipid metabolism of quail embryos.

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of diets containing 3% of either palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) and three stages of development (Days 11, 13, and 15 of incubation) on 1) weights of yolk plus yolk sac membrane (TY), yolk sac membrane (YSM), yolk, liver, and extrahepatic tissue (ET); and 2) the fatty acid composition of phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol ester fractions of YSM and ET of quail embryos. Embryos from birds fed Diet LA had the highest (P less than .05) weights of TY and yolk followed by those from birds fed Diet OA and Diet PA. The weight of ET was highest (P less than .05) in embryos from birds fed Diet PA followed by those from birds fed Diet LA and Diet OA. The weights of YSM and liver were not affected by the maternal diet (P greater than .05). The weight of TY decreased whereas the weights of liver and ET increased as incubation progressed (P less than .05). The weight of YSM was maximum at Day 13 of incubation. In the phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol ester fractions of both YSM and ET of embryos, the fatty acid present at the highest level, except palmitic acid, was the one added to the maternal diet. In phospholipids of both YSM and ET the oleic acid content decreased and linoleic acid increased as incubation progressed. In triglycerides and cholesterol esters of both YSM and ET, the levels of palmitic acid increased, but oleic and linoleic acids decreased, with advancing embryonic development. The results of the present study indicate that embryos from birds fed Diet PA mobilize more yolk material and produce heavier ET than embryos from birds fed Diet OA and Diet LA. The fatty acid profiles of phospholipid, triglyceride, and cholesterol esters of embryonic tissues are consistently influenced by dietary fatty acid and the stage of development.

Effect of feeding palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids to Japanese quail hens (Coturnix coturnix japonica). 1. Reproductive performance and tissue fatty acids.

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of diets containing 3% of either palmitic acid (Diet PA), oleic acid (Diet OA), or linoleic acid (Diet LA) on reproductive performance, fatty acid composition of egg yolk, plasma, and liver, and total plasma phosphorus of Japanese quail. Each diet was fed to 20 individually caged hens from 5 wk of age. A 24-wk production period started at 8 wk of age. Fertile eggs for incubation were obtained by placing at random a male in the cage with the female for 15 to 20 min twice per week. The males were kept in separate individual cages and fed a turkey grower diet throughout. Feed consumption, egg production, egg output, and the number of chicks per hen were higher (P less than .05) in birds fed Diet PA than in those fed Diet OA or Diet LA. Hatchability was not different (P greater than .05) between Diet PA and Diet OA, but they were higher (P less than .05) than that of Diet LA. Quail weight at hatch from birds fed Diet LA was heavier (P less than .05) than those from Diet OA, but not different (P greater than .05) from those fed Diet PA. Total plasma phosphorus concentration was higher (P less than .05) in birds fed Diet PA than in those fed Diet LA. High levels of oleic and linoleic acids were found in egg yolk, plasma, and liver lipids from birds fed Diet OA and Diet LA, respectively. Feeding Diet PA resulted in elevated levels of palmitoleic acid in all three tissues. The highest overall reproductive performance on Diet PA suggests that palmitic acid has some physiological role in reproduction. The sustained near-maximal levels of egg production and fertility achieved in this trial indicate the superiority of the mating procedure, which would also permit testing the response of male and female birds while minimizing injuries incurred by the females.

The influence of supplemental corn oil and free fatty acids on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica).

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary corn oil (CO) and commercial free fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of blood plasma and egg yolk lipids and on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail. When quail were fed a semi-purified low-fat basal mix, the substitution of 3% of CO for corn starch (CS) improved egg weight (11.2 versus 10.8 g), reduced late embryonic mortality (16.7 versus 28.4%), and improved hatchability (75.7 versus 64.1%). Diets in which palmitic acid or oleic acid were substituted on a weight basis for 3% of CS performed as well as those in which CO was used. When linoleic acid replaced 3% of CS, late embryonic mortality was reduced (13.7 versus 28.4%) and hatchability was improved (80.1 versus 64.1%), but fertility was depressed (85.8 versus 93.6%). The substitution of linolenic acid for 3% of CS depressed feed consumption, body weight, and egg weight relative to the low-fat CS diet and did not improve the low 18-day embryonic livability and low hatchability. The fatty acid compositions of plasma and yolk were influenced by the lipid composition of the diets. Quail fed 3% of CO deposited more linoleic acid in the egg than those fed 3% of linoleic acid (15.2 versus 11.7%). Thus, quail fed a simplified basal breeder diet containing .6% of linoleic acid showed decreased embryonic livability and hatchability and these parameters achieved normal levels in response to the substitution of 3% of either CO, palmitic acid, oleic acid, or linoleic acid for CS.

Effect of dietary fat supplementation on the carcass composition of three genetic lines of broilers.

Three genetic lines of broilers - a commercial line (Ross X Arbor-Acres), and lines selected for low abdominal fat (lean line), and high abdominal fat (fat line) were fed one of two isocaloric and isonitrogenous purified diets differing in total fat content (2 vs. 9%). Carcass composition (crude protein, ether-extract, ash, and total dry matter content) was determined on four broilers/line/diet at 21 days of age and at 1 kg body weight. Carcass protein and ether-extract were not significantly (P less than .05) affected by diet at 21 days of age or at 1 kg weight. Carcass ash was significantly (P less than .01) affected by diet at 21 days of age but not at 1 kg body weight. Genetic line of broiler significantly (P less than .05) affected carcass protein, ether-extract, and ash at 21 days of age and at 1 kg body weight. Lean line broilers had a significantly (P less than .05) higher percentage of carcass protein and a significantly (P less than .05) lower percentage of carcass ether-extract than the fat line or commercial broilers.

Methods of measuring energy utilization in broilers: effect of genetic line and presence of supplemental dietary fat.

A commercial line (CL) and genetically-selected lean (LL) and fat (FL) lines were fed a purified diet containing either 2% corn oil or 2% corn oil plus 7% animal-vegetable fat. Both diets contained 23% crude protein and 3150 kcal nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn)/kg. Apparent fat digestibility (AFD), apparent metabolizable energy (AME), AMEn, true metabolizable energy (TME), and nitrogen-corrected TME (TMEn) were determined on birds fed ad lib or restricted to 25 g for 36 hr. The birds on the ad lib program were than killed for net energy of production (NEp) determination. Apparent fat digestibility increased (P less than .05) from 1 to 3 weeks of age for both diets. This resulted in significantly lower AME, AMEn, and TMEn at 1 week than at 3 weeks. True metabolizable energy was not affected (P greater than .05) by age. The AMEn and TMEn at 1 kg body weight were less precise on the restricted than on the ad lib program. The AME, AMEn, TME, and TMEn determined by ad lib feeding at 1 kg body weight were not affected by line (P greater than .05) by line or diet. However, AME and AMEn from the same program were affected by line and diet. Nitrogen-correction of ME was only necessary for TME on the restricted program. Net energy of production was only different (P less than .05) among lines. Because of its greater precision, the AME assay with ad lib-fed birds is the preferred assay, at least at a young age.

Effects of floor and cage housing of male turkeys on semen production and fertility of fresh and stored semen.

Broiler-type male turkeys housed in individual cages were compared with those housed in litter floor pens with respect to fertility, semen volume, concentration of spermatozoa, body weight, foot abnormality, and mortality. The effect of short-term storage of semen on fertility was also examined. There was no significant difference (P greater than .05) between the fertilities of the males in cages and those on floor when semen was diluted and inseminated fresh (92 vs. 88%) or diluted and stored for 6 hr at 15 (79 vs. 84%) or 3 C (77 vs. 85%). The males in cages produced as much semen as those on floor and with similar concentrations of spermatozoa. Those in cages had significantly (P less than 01) reduced body weight, higher incidence of foot abnormality, and higher percent mortality. Storage of semen for 6 hr reduced fertility.

Lipid and energy metabolism in chicks affected by dwarfism (dw) and Naked-neck (Na).

In two experiments, sister pairs of chicks, one dwarf (dw) and one nondwarf (Dw+), were reared in individual cages to 5 weeks of age. Chicks carrying the sex-linked recessive dw gene were identified at hatching by the closely linked fast feathering gene (k). The dwarf chicks showed a 27% reduction in weight gain, a reduced body temperature, increased carcass content of lipid, and increased lipid 14C activity from injected 14C-labeled acetate. The augmented accumulation of carcass lipid in the dwarf chicks was shown to be a result of increased lipogenesis and decreased energy expenditure. An autosomal dominant gene for naked-neck (Na), present in half of the pairs of chicks, also caused increased lipogenesis. Naked-neck birds showed increased energy expenditure in a cool environment and perhaps a greater flexibility of body temperature regulation. An interaction between the dw and Na genes was apparent under cool environmental conditions and may have been due to a suppression by the dw gene of the Na gene's effect on thermoregulation, possibly by slowing down lipid degradation.

Influence of level of dietary fat on the growth of dwarf chickens.

Two strains of chickens, dwarf (dw) and nondwarf (Dw+), and three levels of supplemental dietary fat (none, moderate, and high) were included in a 2 X 3 factorial design to study the effect of dietary fat on growth. The lowered tibial ash, calcium, and phosphorus contents at 4 weeks of age and zinc content at both 4 and 8 weeks of age observed in the dwarf birds may reflect a predisposition to bone abnormalities. Improvements in weight gain (0 to 4 weeks) in response to supplemental dietary fat were observed in all birds but were less pronounced in the dwarfs. AT 4 weeks of age, the dwarf birds consuming the fat-supplemented diets had mineral contents of their tibia consistently lower than those of their dwarf counterparts fed the basal diet. At 87 weeks of age, there were no differences between strains in bone mineralization, but the 0 to 8 week weight gains were better for both strains fed the diet supplenented with a moderate level of fat. It appears that optimal bone mineralization of dwarfs to 4 weeks of age occurs at a lower level of dietary fat than that for nondwarfs. Beyond 4 weeks of age, a moderate level of suplemental dietary fat yielded optimal weight gains in both strains of birds.

Influence of supplemental dietary fat on the relative proportions of three classes of lipid in the epiphyseal cartilage of dwarf and non-dwarf chicks.

One hundred and forty-four day-old chicks were allotted to six groups in a 2 x 3 factorial design involving two strains (dwarf, dw and non-dwarf, Dw+) and three levels of supplemental dietary fat (none, moderate and high). The birds were killed at four weeks of age. The overall weight gain and the total lipid content, amount of neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids in the epiphyseal cartilage of the tibia were examined. Supplemental dietary fat resulted in improved weight gain, with the non-dwarfs showing a greater increase. There was no change in total lipid in epiphyseal cartilage with different levels of dietary fat. Increase in dietary fat elicited, in both strains of birds, an increase in the proportion of glycolipids and a concomitant decrease in the proportion of neutral lipids and no change in that of phospholipids. That the stimulatory effect of dietary fat on growth was exerted through an increase in glycolipids at the site of calcification is suggested.

Effect of light intensity on confinement rearing of male turkeys.

Light intensities of .11, 1.1, 11 and 33 lux of 12 hours per day duration were studied for their effect on growth rate and feed utilization efficiency. The two experiments were initiated when the birds were 3 weeks old. Up to 12-14 weeks of age, the .11 lux intensity was superior to the other treatments. After this age, the other treatments were superior. Two other experiments were conducted with a crossover design. Birds were reared under either 11 or .11 lux from 3 to 12 weeks of age, than half of each group was maintained, and half was switched to either the higher or lower, intensity. Best growth up to 12 weeks of age was associated with .11 lux. Best growth to 22 weeks was associated with 11 lux. Crossing from high to low or low to high had no beneficial effects in either experiment.