Phosphoglycerate Kinases Are Co-Regulated to Adjust Metabolism and to Optimize Growth.

In plants, phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) converts 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate into 3-phosphoglycerate in glycolysis but also participates in the reverse reaction in gluconeogenesis and the Calvin-Benson cycle. In the databases, we found three genes that encode putative PGKs. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) PGK1 was localized exclusively in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic tissues, while PGK2 was expressed in the chloroplast/plastid of photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic cells. PGK3 was expressed ubiquitously in the cytosol of all studied cell types. Measurements of carbohydrate content and photosynthetic activities in PGK mutants and silenced lines corroborated that PGK1 was the photosynthetic isoform, while PGK2 and PGK3 were the plastidial and cytosolic glycolytic isoforms, respectively. The pgk1.1 knockdown mutant displayed reduced growth, lower photosynthetic capacity, and starch content. The pgk3.2 knockout mutant was characterized by reduced growth but higher starch levels than the wild type. The pgk1.1 pgk3.2 double mutant was bigger than pgk3.2 and displayed an intermediate phenotype between the two single mutants in all measured biochemical and physiological parameters. Expression studies in PGK mutants showed that PGK1 and PGK3 were down-regulated in pgk3.2 and pgk1.1, respectively. These results indicate that the down-regulation of photosynthetic activity could be a plant strategy when glycolysis is impaired to achieve metabolic adjustment and optimize growth. The double mutants of PGK3 and the triose-phosphate transporter (pgk3.2 tpt3) displayed a drastic growth phenotype, but they were viable. This implies that other enzymes or nonspecific chloroplast transporters could provide 3-phosphoglycerate to the cytosol. Our results highlight both the complexity and the plasticity of the plant primary metabolic network.

Overexpression of the triose phosphate translocator (TPT) complements the abnormal metabolism and development of plastidial glycolytic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase mutants.

The presence of two glycolytic pathways working in parallel in plastids and cytosol has complicated the understanding of this essential process in plant cells, especially the integration of the plastidial pathway into the metabolism of heterotrophic and autotrophic organs. It is assumed that this integration is achieved by transport systems, which exchange glycolytic intermediates across plastidial membranes. However, it is unknown whether plastidial and cytosolic pools of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) can equilibrate in non-photosynthetic tissues. To resolve this question, we employed Arabidopsis mutants of the plastidial glycolytic isoforms of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPCp) that express the triose phosphate translocator (TPT) under the control of the 35S (35S:TPT) or the native GAPCp1 (GAPCp1:TPT) promoters. TPT expression under the control of both promoters complemented the vegetative developmental defects and metabolic disorders of the GAPCp double mutants (gapcp1gapcp2). However, as the 35S is poorly expressed in the tapetum, full vegetative and reproductive complementation of gapcp1gapcp2 was achieved only by transforming this mutant with the GAPCp1:TPT construct. Our results indicate that the main function of GAPCp is to supply 3-PGA for anabolic pathways in plastids of heterotrophic cells and suggest that the plastidial glycolysis may contribute to fatty acid biosynthesis in seeds. They also suggest a 3-PGA deficiency in the plastids of gapcp1gapcp2, and that 3-PGA pools between cytosol and plastid do not equilibrate in heterotrophic cells.

Identification of the phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase isoform EDA9 as the essential gene for embryo and male gametophyte development in Arabidopsis.

Three different pathways of serine (Ser) biosynthesis have been described in plants: the Glycolate pathway, which is part of the Photorespiratory pathway, and 2 non-Photorespiratory pathways, the Glycerate and the Phosphorylated pathways. The Phosphorylated Pathway of Ser Biosynthesis (PPSB) has been known to exist since the 1950s, but its biological relevance was not revealed until quite recently when the last enzyme of the pathway, the Phosphoserine Phosphatase, was functionally characterized. In the associated study (1), we characterized a family of genes coding for putatite phosphoglycerate dehydrogenases (PGDH, 3-PGDH, and EDA9), the first enzyme of the PPSB. A metabolomics study using overexpressing plants indicated that all PGDH family genes were able to regulate Ser homeostasis but only lacking of EDA9 expression caused drastic developmental defects. We provided genetic and molecular evidence for the essential role of EDA9 for embryo and pollen development. Here, some new insights into the physiological/molecular function of PPSB and Ser are presented and discussed.

The essential role of the phosphorylated pathway of serine biosynthesis in Arabidopsis.

In plants, 3 different pathways of serine biosynthesis have been described: the Glycolate pathway, which is associated with photorespiration, and 2 non-photorespiratory pathways, the Glycerate and the Phosphorylated pathways. The Phosphorylated Pathway of Serine Biosynthesis (PPSB) has been known since the 1950s, but has been studied relatively little, probably because it was considered of minor significance as compared with the Glycolate pathway. In the associated study (1), we described for the first time in plants the in vivo functional characterization of the PPSB, by targeting the phosphoserine phosphatase (PSP1), the last enzyme of the pathway. Following a gain- and loss-of-function approach in Arabidopsis, we provided genetic and molecular evidence for the essential role of PSP1 for embryo and pollen development, and for proper root growth. A metabolomics study indicated that the PPSB affects glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the biosynthesis of several amino acids, which suggests that this pathway is an important link connecting metabolism and development. The mechanisms underlying the essential functions of PSP1 are discussed.

Functional characterization of the plastidial 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase family in Arabidopsis.

This work contributes to unraveling the role of the phosphorylated pathway of serine (Ser) biosynthesis in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) by functionally characterizing genes coding for the first enzyme of this pathway, 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PGDH). We identified two Arabidopsis plastid-localized PGDH genes (3-PGDH and EMBRYO SAC DEVELOPMENT ARREST9 [EDA9]) with a high percentage of amino acid identity with a previously identified PGDH. All three genes displayed a different expression pattern indicating that they are not functionally redundant. pgdh and 3-pgdh mutants presented no drastic visual phenotypes, but eda9 displayed delayed embryo development, leading to aborted embryos that could be classified as early curled cotyledons. The embryo-lethal phenotype of eda9 was complemented with an EDA9 complementary DNA under the control of a 35S promoter (Pro-35S:EDA9). However, this construct, which is poorly expressed in the anther tapetum, did not complement mutant fertility. Microspore development in eda9.1eda9.1 Pro-35S:EDA9 was arrested at the polarized stage. Pollen from these lines lacked tryphine in the interstices of the exine layer, displayed shrunken and collapsed forms, and were unable to germinate when cultured in vitro. A metabolomic analysis of PGDH mutant and overexpressing plants revealed that all three PGDH family genes can regulate Ser homeostasis, with PGDH being quantitatively the most important in the process of Ser biosynthesis at the whole-plant level. By contrast, the essential role of EDA9 could be related to its expression in very specific cell types. We demonstrate the crucial role of EDA9 in embryo and pollen development, suggesting that the phosphorylated pathway of Ser biosynthesis is an important link connecting primary metabolism with development.

Interactions between abscisic acid and plastidial glycolysis in Arabidopsis.

The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) controls the development of plants and plays a crucial role in their response to adverse environmental conditions like salt and water stress. Complex interactions between ABA and sugar signal transduction pathways have been shown. However, the role played by glycolysis in these interactions is not known. In the associated study, we investigated the interactions between plastidial glycolytic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPCp) and ABA signal transduction in Arabidopsis. We followed physiological, genetic and genomic approaches to understand the processes and mechanisms underlying the ABA-glycolysis interactions. Our results indicated that GAPCp deficiency leads to ABA-insensitivity and impaired ABA signal transduction. The gene expression of the transcription factor ABI4, involved in both sugar and ABA signaling, was altered in gapcp double mutants (gapcp1gapcp2), suggesting that the ABA insensitivity of mutants is mediated, at least in part, through this transcriptional regulator. We also suggested that amino acid homeostasis and/or serine metabolism may also be important determinants in the connections of ABA with primary metabolism. These studies provide new insights into the links between plant primary metabolism and ABA signal transduction, and demonstrate the importance of plastidial glycolytic GAPCps in these interactions.