ABSTRACT
Newer urinary protein kidney safety biomarkers can outperform the conventional kidney functional biomarkers blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine (SCr) in rats. However, there is far less experience with the relative performance of these biomarkers in dogs and nonhuman primates. Here, we report urine protein biomarker performance in tenofovir-treated cynomolgus monkeys and beagle dogs. Tenofovir intravenous daily dosing in monkeys for 2 or 4 weeks at 30 mg/kg/day resulted in minimal to moderate tubular degeneration and regeneration, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate oral dosing in dogs for 10 days at 45 mg/kg/day resulted in mild to marked tubular degeneration, necrosis, and regeneration. Among biomarkers tested, kidney injury molecule 1 (Kim-1) and clusterin (CLU) clearly outperformed BUN and SCr and were the most reliable in detecting the onset and progression of tenofovir-induced tubular injury. Cystatin C, retinol binding protein 4, ß2-microglobulin, neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, albumin, and total protein also performed better than BUN and SCr and added value when considered together with Kim-1 and CLU. These findings demonstrate the promising utility of these urinary safety biomarkers in monkeys and dogs and support their further evaluation in human to improve early detection of renal tubular injury.
Subject(s)
Acute Kidney Injury/urine , Biomarkers/urine , Kidney Tubules/drug effects , Tenofovir/toxicity , Acute Kidney Injury/chemically induced , Acute Kidney Injury/pathology , Administration, Oral , Animals , Biomarkers/blood , Dogs , Female , Injections, Intravenous , Kidney Tubules/pathology , Macaca fascicularis , Male , Sensitivity and Specificity , Species SpecificityABSTRACT
Levels of serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (E) were determined in the whole blood and urine of 23 children with autism and compared to those of normal children. Very significant group effects (low whole blood 5-HT, high urinary 5-HT and high NE+E in autism) and age effects (urinary 5-HT and DA decrease with age) were found. Moreover, the urinary DA and the whole blood E levels were correlated with clinical findings. The results suggest a maturation defect of noradrenergic systems, possibly disturbed dopaminergic and serotoninergic metabolism, and a functional imbalance among these neurotransmitters in autism.
