Involvement of P2Y signaling in the restoration of glucose-induced insulin exocytosis in pancreatic ß cells exposed to glucotoxicity.

Purinergic P2Y receptors, by binding adenosine triphosphate (ATP), are known for enhancing glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in pancreatic ß cells. However, the impact of these receptors in the actin dynamics and insulin granule exocytosis in these cells is not established, neither in normal nor in glucotoxic environment. In this study, we investigate the involvement of P2Y receptors on the behavior of insulin granules and the subcortical actin network dynamics in INS-1 832/13 ß cells exposed to normal or glucotoxic environment and their role in GSIS. Our results show that the activation of P2Y purinergic receptors by ATP or its agonist increase the insulin granules exocytosis and the reorganization of the subcortical actin network and participate in the potentiation of GSIS. In addition, their activation in INS-1832/13 ß-cells, with impaired insulin secretion following exposure to elevated glucose levels, restores GSIS competence through the distal steps of insulin exocytosis. These results are confirmed ex vivo by perifusion experiments on islets from type 2 diabetic (T2D) Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rats. Indeed, the P2Y receptor agonist restores the altered GSIS, which is normally lost in this T2D animal model. Moreover, we observed an improvement of the glucose tolerance, following the acute intraperitoneal injection of the P2Y agonist concomitantly with glucose, in diabetic GK rats. All these data provide new insights into the unprecedented therapeutic role of P2Y purinergic receptors in the pathophysiology of T2D.

P2-type purinergic signaling in the regulation of pancreatic ß-cell functional plasticity as a promising novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes?

Diabetes Mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by a chronic hyperglycemia due to an impaired insulin secretion and a decreased in peripheral insulin sensitivity. This disease is a major public health problem due to it sharp prevalence. Therefore, it is crucial to readapt therapeutic approaches for the treatment of this pathology. One of the strategies would be through P2-type purinergic receptors pathway via ATP binding. In addition to its well-known role as an intracellular energy intermediary in numerous biochemical and physiological processes, ATP is also an important extracellular signaling molecule. ATP mediates its effects by binding and activating two classes of P2 purinoreceptors: P2X receptors that are ligand-gated ion channel receptors, existing in seven isoforms (P2X 1 to 7) and P2Y receptors that are G-protein coupled receptors, existing in eight isoforms (P2Y 1/2/4/6/11/12/13/14). These receptors are ubiquitously distributed and involved in numerous physiological processes in several tissues. The concept of purinergic signaling, originally formulated by Geoffrey Burnstock (1929-2020), was also found to mediate various responses in the pancreas. Several studies have shown that P2 receptors are expressed in the endocrine pancreas, notably in ß cells, where ATP could modulate their function but also their plasticity and thus play a physiological role in stimulating insulin secretion to face some metabolic demands. In this review, we provide a historical perspective and summarize current knowledge on P2-type purinergic signaling in the regulation of pancreatic ß-cell functional plasticity, which would be a promising novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

The Constitutive Lack of α7 Nicotinic Receptor Leads to Metabolic Disorders in Mouse.

OBJECTIVE: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) occurs by deterioration in pancreatic ß-cell function and/or progressive loss of pancreatic ß-cell mass under the context of insulin resistance. α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) may contribute to insulin sensitivity but its role in the pathogenesis of T2D remains undefined. We investigated whether the systemic lack of α7 nAChR was sufficient to impair glucose homeostasis. METHODS: We used an α7 nAChR knock-out (α7-/-) mouse model fed a standard chow diet. The effects of the lack of α7 nAChR on islet mass, insulin secretion, glucose and insulin tolerance, body composition, and food behaviour were assessed in vivo and ex vivo experiments. RESULTS: Young α7-/- mice display a chronic mild high glycemia combined with an impaired glucose tolerance and a marked deficit in ß-cell mass. In addition to these metabolic disorders, old mice developed adipose tissue inflammation, elevated plasma free fatty acid concentrations and presented glycolytic muscle insulin resistance in old mice. Finally, α7-/- mice, fed a chow diet, exhibited a late-onset excessive gain in body weight through increased fat mass associated with higher food intake. CONCLUSION: Our work highlights the important role of α7 nAChR in glucose homeostasis. The constitutive lack of α7 nAChR suggests a novel pathway influencing the pathogenesis of T2D.

Disrupted dynamics of F-actin and insulin granule fusion in INS-1 832/13 beta-cells exposed to glucotoxicity: partial restoration by glucagon-like peptide 1.

Actin dynamics in pancreatic ß-cells is involved in insulin exocytosis but the molecular mechanisms of this dynamics and its role in biphasic insulin secretion in pancreatic ß-cells is largely unknown. Moreover, the impact of a glucotoxic environment on the sub-cortical actin network dynamics is poorly studied. In this study, we investigate the behavior of insulin granules and the subcortical actin network dynamics in INS-1 832/13 ß-cells submitted to a normal or glucotoxic environment. Our results show that glucose stimulation leads to a reorganization of the subcortical actin network with a rupture of its interactions with t-SNARE proteins (Syntaxin 1A and SNAP-25), promoting insulin secretion in INS-1 832/13 ß-cells. Prolonged exposure of INS-1 832/13 ß-cells to high-glucose levels (glucotoxicity) leads to the densification of the cortical actin network, which prevents its reorganization under acute glucose, and diminishes the glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, as shown by the decreased number of fusion events. The most interesting in our results is the partial restoration by GLP-1 of the insulin secretion ability from high-glucose treated INS-1 832/13 cells. This improved insulin exocytosis is associated with partial restored actin dynamics and fusion events during the two phases of the secretion, with a preferential involvement of Epac2 signaling in the first phase and a rather involvement of PKA signaling in the second phase of insulin exocytosis. All these data provide some new insights into the mechanism by which current therapeutics may be improving insulin secretion.

Correction: proteasome dysfunction mediates high glucose-induced apoptosis in rodent Beta cells and human islets.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092066.].

Proteasome dysfunction mediates high glucose-induced apoptosis in rodent beta cells and human islets.

The ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS), a major cellular protein degradation machinery, plays key roles in the regulation of many cell functions. Glucotoxicity mediated by chronic hyperglycaemia is detrimental to the function and survival of pancreatic beta cells. The aim of our study was to determine whether proteasome dysfunction could be involved in beta cell apoptosis in glucotoxic conditions, and to evaluate whether such a dysfunction might be pharmacologically corrected. Therefore, UPS activity was measured in GK rats islets, INS-1E beta cells or human islets after high glucose and/or UPS inhibitor exposure. Immunoblotting was used to quantify polyubiquitinated proteins, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress through CHOP expression, and apoptosis through the cleavage of PARP and caspase-3, whereas total cell death was detected through histone-associated DNA fragments measurement. In vitro, we found that chronic exposure of INS-1E cells to high glucose concentrations significantly decreases the three proteasome activities by 20% and leads to caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. We showed that pharmacological blockade of UPS activity by 20% leads to apoptosis in a same way. Indeed, ER stress was involved in both conditions. These results were confirmed in human islets, and proteasome activities were also decreased in hyperglycemic GK rats islets. Moreover, we observed that a high glucose treatment hypersensitized beta cells to the apoptotic effect of proteasome inhibitors. Noteworthily, the decreased proteasome activity can be corrected with Exendin-4, which also protected against glucotoxicity-induced apoptosis. Taken together, our findings reveal an important role of proteasome activity in high glucose-induced beta cell apoptosis, potentially linking ER stress and glucotoxicity. These proteasome dysfunctions can be reversed by a GLP-1 analog. Thus, UPS may be a potent target to treat deleterious metabolic conditions leading to type 2 diabetes.

Defective prolactin signaling impairs pancreatic ß-cell development during the perinatal period.

Prolactin (PRL) and placental lactogens stimulate ß-cell replication and insulin production in pancreatic islets and insulinoma cells through binding to the PRL receptor (PRLR). However, the contribution of PRLR signaling to ß-cell ontogeny and function in perinatal life and the effects of the lactogens on adaptive islet growth are poorly understood. We provide evidence that expansion of ß-cell mass during both embryogenesis and the postnatal period is impaired in the PRLR(-/-) mouse model. PRLR(-/-) newborns display a 30% reduction of ß-cell mass, consistent with reduced proliferation index at E18.5. PRL stimulates leucine incorporation and S6 kinase phosphorylation in INS-1 cells, supporting a role for ß-cell mTOR signaling in PRL action. Interestingly, a defect in the development of acini is also observed in absence of PRLR signaling, with a sharp decline in cellular size in both endocrine and exocrine compartments. Of note, a decrease in levels of IGF-II, a PRL target, in the Goto-Kakizaki (GK) rat, a spontaneous model of type 2 diabetes, is associated with a lack of PRL-mediated ß-cell proliferation in embryonic pancreatic buds. Reduced pancreatic IGF-II expression in both rat and mouse models suggests that this factor may constitute a molecular link between PRL signaling and cell ontogenesis. Together, these results provide evidence that PRL signaling is essential for pancreas ontogenesis during the critical perinatal window responsible for establishing functional ß-cell reserve.

The GK rat: a prototype for the study of non-overweight type 2 diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) arises when the endocrine pancreas fails to secrete sufficient insulin to cope with the metabolic demand because of ß-cell secretory dysfunction and/or decreased ß-cell mass. Defining the nature of the pancreatic islet defects present in T2D has been difficult, in part because human islets are inaccessible for direct study. This review is aimed to illustrate to what extent the Goto Kakizaki rat, one of the best characterized animal models of spontaneous T2D, has proved to be a valuable tool offering sufficient commonalities to study this aspect. A comprehensive compendium of the multiple functional GK abnormalities so far identified is proposed in this perspective, together with their time-course and interactions. A special focus is given toward the pathogenesis of defective ß-cell number and function in the GK model. It is proposed that the development of T2D in the GK model results from the complex interaction of multiple events: (1) several susceptibility loci containing genes responsible for some diabetic traits; (2) gestational metabolic impairment inducing an epigenetic programming of the offspring pancreas and the major insulin target tissues; and (3) environmentally induced loss of ß-cell differentiation due to chronic exposure to hyperglycemia/hyperlipidemia, inflammation, and oxidative stress.

COUP-TFII controls mouse pancreatic ß-cell mass through GLP-1-ß-catenin signaling pathways.

BACKGROUND: The control of the functional pancreatic ß-cell mass serves the key homeostatic function of releasing the right amount of insulin to keep blood sugar in the normal range. It is not fully understood though how ß-cell mass is determined. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Conditional chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor II (COUP-TFII)-deficient mice were generated and crossed with mice expressing Cre under the control of pancreatic duodenal homeobox 1 (pdx1) gene promoter. Ablation of COUP-TFII in pancreas resulted in glucose intolerance. Beta-cell number was reduced at 1 day and 3 weeks postnatal. Together with a reduced number of insulin-containing cells in the ductal epithelium and normal ß-cell proliferation and apoptosis, this suggests decreased ß-cell differentiation in the neonatal period. By testing islets isolated from these mice and cultured ß-cells with loss and gain of COUP-TFII function, we found that COUP-TFII induces the expression of the ß-catenin gene and its target genes such as cyclin D1 and axin 2. Moreover, induction of these genes by glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) via ß-catenin was impaired in absence of COUP-TFII. The expression of two other target genes of GLP-1 signaling, GLP-1R and PDX-1 was significantly lower in mutant islets compared to control islets, possibly contributing to reduced ß-cell mass. Finally, we demonstrated that COUP-TFII expression was activated by the Wnt signaling-associated transcription factor TCF7L2 (T-cell factor 7-like 2) in human islets and rat ß-cells providing a feedback loop. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Our findings show that COUP-TFII is a novel component of the GLP-1 signaling cascade that increases ß-cell number during the neonatal period. COUP-TFII is required for GLP-1 activation of the ß-catenin-dependent pathway and its expression is under the control of TCF7L2.

Importance of mitochondrial dynamin-related protein 1 in hypothalamic glucose sensitivity in rats.

AIMS: Hypothalamic mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS)-mediated signaling has been recently shown to be involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis. However, the upstream signals that control this mechanism have not yet been determined. Here, we hypothesize that glucose-induced mitochondrial fission plays a significant role in mROS-dependent hypothalamic glucose sensing. RESULTS: Glucose-triggered translocation of the fission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) to mitochondria was first investigated in vivo in hypothalamus. Thus, we show that intracarotid glucose injection induces the recruitment of DRP1 to VMH mitochondria in vivo. Then, expression was transiently knocked down by intra-ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) DRP1 siRNA (siDRP1) injection. 72 h post siRNA injection, brain intracarotid glucose induced insulin secretion, and VMH glucose infusion-induced refeeding decrease were measured, as well as mROS production. The SiDRP1 rats decreased mROS and impaired intracarotid glucose injection-induced insulin secretion. In addition, the VMH glucose infusion-induced refeeding decrease was lost in siDRP1 rats. Finally, mitochondrial function was evaluated by oxygen consumption measurements after DRP1 knock down. Although hypothalamic mitochondrial respiration was not modified in the resting state, substrate-driven respiration was impaired in siDRP1 rats and associated with an alteration of the coupling mechanism. INNOVATION AND CONCLUSION: Collectively, our results suggest that glucose-induced DRP1-dependent mitochondrial fission is an upstream regulator for mROS signaling, and consequently, a key mechanism in hypothalamic glucose sensing. Thus, for the first time, we demonstrate the involvement of DRP1 in physiological regulation of brain glucose-induced insulin secretion and food intake inhibition. Such involvement implies DRP1-dependent mROS production.

Activation of the GLP-1 receptor signalling pathway: a relevant strategy to repair a deficient beta-cell mass.

Recent preclinical studies in rodent models of diabetes suggest that exogenous GLP-1R agonists and DPP-4 inhibitors have the ability to increase islet mass and preserve beta-cell function, by immediate reactivation of beta-cell glucose competence, as well as enhanced beta-cell proliferation and neogenesis and promotion of beta-cell survival. These effects have tremendous implication in the treatment of T2D because they directly address one of the basic defects in T2D, that is, beta-cell failure. In human diabetes, however, evidence that the GLP-1-based drugs alter the course of beta-cell function remains to be found. Several questions surrounding the risks and benefits of GLP-1-based therapy for the diabetic beta-cell mass are discussed in this review and require further investigation.

The nutritional induction of COUP-TFII gene expression in ventromedial hypothalamic neurons is mediated by the melanocortin pathway.

BACKGROUND: The nuclear receptor chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor II (COUP-TFII) is an important coordinator of glucose homeostasis. We report, for the first time, a unique differential regulation of its expression by the nutritional status in the mouse hypothalamus compared to peripheral tissues. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Using hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamps and insulinopenic mice, we show that insulin upregulates its expression in the hypothalamus. Immunofluorescence studies demonstrate that COUP-TFII gene expression is restricted to a subpopulation of ventromedial hypothalamic neurons expressing the melanocortin receptor. In GT1-7 hypothalamic cells, the MC4-R agonist MTII leads to a dose dependant increase of COUP-TFII gene expression secondarily to a local increase in cAMP concentrations. Transfection experiments, using a COUP-TFII promoter containing a functional cAMP responsive element, suggest a direct transcriptional activation by cAMP. Finally, we show that the fed state or intracerebroventricular injections of MTII in mice induce an increased hypothalamic COUP-TFII expression associated with a decreased hepatic and pancreatic COUP-TFII expression. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: These observations strongly suggest that hypothalamic COUP-TFII gene expression could be a central integrator of insulin and melanocortin signaling pathway within the ventromedial hypothalamus. COUP-TFII could play a crucial role in brain integration of circulating signal of hunger and satiety involved in energy balance regulation.

Islet structure and function in the GK rat.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) arises when the endocrine pancreas fails to secrete sufficient insulin to cope with the metabolic demand because of beta-cell secretory dysfunction and/or decreased beta-cell mass. Defining the nature of the pancreatic islet defects present in T2D has been difficult, in part because human islets are inaccessible for direct study. This review is aimed to illustrate to what extent the Goto-Kakizaki rat, one of the best characterized animal models of spontaneous T2D, has proved to be a valuable tool offering sufficient commonalities to study this aspect. A comprehensive compendium of the multiple functional GK islet abnormalities so far identified is proposed in this perspective. The pathogenesis of defective beta-cell number and function in the GK model is also discussed. It is proposed that the development of T2D in the GK model results from the complex interaction of multiple events: (i) several susceptibility loci containing genes responsible for some diabetic traits (distinct loci encoding impairment of beta-cell metabolism and insulin exocytosis, but no quantitative trait locus for decreased beta-cell mass); (ii) gestational metabolic impairment inducing an epigenetic programming of the offspring pancreas (decreased beta-cell neogenesis and proliferation) transmitted over generations; and (iii) loss of beta-cell differentiation related to chronic exposure to hyperglycaemia/hyperlipidaemia, islet inflammation, islet oxidative stress, islet fibrosis and perturbed islet vasculature.

Exploring functional beta-cell heterogeneity in vivo using PSA-NCAM as a specific marker.

BACKGROUND: The mass of pancreatic beta-cells varies according to increases in insulin demand. It is hypothesized that functionally heterogeneous beta-cell subpopulations take part in this process. Here we characterized two functionally distinct groups of beta-cells and investigated their physiological relevance in increased insulin demand conditions in rats. METHODS: Two rat beta-cell populations were sorted by FACS according to their PSA-NCAM surface expression, i.e. beta(high) and beta(low)-cells. Insulin release, Ca(2+) movements, ATP and cAMP contents in response to various secretagogues were analyzed. Gene expression profiles and exocytosis machinery were also investigated. In a second part, beta(high) and beta(low)-cell distribution and functionality were investigated in animal models with decreased or increased beta-cell function: the Zucker Diabetic Fatty rat and the 48 h glucose-infused rat. RESULTS: We show that beta-cells are heterogeneous for PSA-NCAM in rat pancreas. Unlike beta(low)-cells, beta(high)-cells express functional beta-cell markers and are highly responsive to various insulin secretagogues. Whereas beta(low)-cells represent the main population in diabetic pancreas, an increase in beta(high)-cells is associated with gain of function that follows sustained glucose overload. CONCLUSION: Our data show that a functional heterogeneity of beta-cells, assessed by PSA-NCAM surface expression, exists in vivo. These findings pinpoint new target populations involved in endocrine pancreas plasticity and in beta-cell defects in type 2 diabetes.

Degradation of cAMP-responsive element-binding protein by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway contributes to glucotoxicity in beta-cells and human pancreatic islets.

OBJECTIVE: In type 2 diabetes, chronic hyperglycemia is detrimental to beta-cells, causing apoptosis and impaired insulin secretion. The transcription factor cAMP-responsive element-binding protein (CREB) is crucial for beta-cell survival and function. We investigated whether prolonged exposure of beta-cells to high glucose affects the functional integrity of CREB. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: INS-1E cells and rat and human islets were used. Gene expression was analyzed by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Apoptosis was detected by cleaved caspase-3 emergence, DNA fragmentation, and electron microscopy. RESULTS: Chronic exposure of INS-1E cells and rat and human islets to high glucose resulted in decreased CREB protein expression, phosphorylation, and transcriptional activity associated with apoptosis and impaired beta-cell function. High-glucose treatment increased CREB polyubiquitination, while treatment of INS-1E cells with the proteasome inhibitor MG-132 prevented the decrease in CREB content. The emergence of apoptosis in INS-1E cells with decreased CREB protein expression knocked down by small interfering RNA suggested that loss of CREB protein content induced by high glucose contributes to beta-cell apoptosis. Loading INS-1E cells or human islets with a cell-permeable peptide mimicking the proteasomal targeting sequence of CREB blocked CREB degradation and protected INS-1E cells and human islets from apoptosis induced by high glucose. The insulin secretion in response to glucose and the insulin content were preserved in human islets exposed to high glucose and loaded with the peptide. CONCLUSIONS: These studies demonstrate that the CREB degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway contributes to beta-cell dysfunction and death upon glucotoxicity and provide new insight into the cellular mechanisms of glucotoxicity.

Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species are obligatory signals for glucose-induced insulin secretion.

OBJECTIVE: Insulin secretion involves complex events in which the mitochondria play a pivotal role in the generation of signals that couple glucose detection to insulin secretion. Studies on the mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generally focus on chronic nutrient exposure. Here, we investigate whether transient mitochondrial ROS production linked to glucose-induced increased respiration might act as a signal for monitoring insulin secretion. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: ROS production in response to glucose was investigated in freshly isolated rat islets. ROS effects were studied using a pharmacological approach and calcium imaging. RESULTS: Transient glucose increase from 5.5 to 16.7 mmol/l stimulated ROS generation, which was reversed by antioxidants. Insulin secretion was dose dependently blunted by antioxidants and highly correlated with ROS levels. The incapacity of beta-cells to secrete insulin in response to glucose with antioxidants was associated with a decrease in ROS production and in contrast to the maintenance of high levels of ATP and NADH. Then, we investigated the mitochondrial origin of ROS (mROS) as the triggering signal. Insulin release was mimicked by the mitochondrial-complex blockers, antimycin and rotenone, that generate mROS. The adding of antioxidants to mitochondrial blockers or to glucose was used to lower mROS reversed insulin secretion. Finally, calcium imaging on perifused islets using glucose stimulation or mitochondrial blockers revealed that calcium mobilization was completely reversed using the antioxidant trolox and that it was of extracellular origin. No toxic effects were present using these pharmacological approaches. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, these complementary results demonstrate that mROS production is a necessary stimulus for glucose-induced insulin secretion.

The transcription factor COUP-TFII is negatively regulated by insulin and glucose via Foxo1- and ChREBP-controlled pathways.

COUP-TFII has an important role in regulating metabolism in vivo. We showed this previously by deleting COUP-TFII from pancreatic beta cells in heterozygous mutant mice, which led to abnormal insulin secretion. Here, we report that COUP-TFII expression is reduced in the pancreas and liver of mice refed with a carbohydrate-rich diet and in the pancreas and liver of hyperinsulinemic and hyperglycemic mice. In pancreatic beta cells, COUP-TFII gene expression is repressed by secreted insulin in response to glucose through Foxo1 signaling. Ex vivo COUP-TFII reduces insulin production and secretion. Our results suggest that beta cell insulin secretion is under the control of an autocrine positive feedback loop by alleviating COUP-TFII repression. In hepatocytes, both insulin, through Foxo1, and high glucose concentrations repress COUP-TFII expression. We demonstrate that this negative glucose effect involves ChREBP expression. We propose that COUP-TFII acts in a coordinate fashion to control insulin secretion and glucose metabolism.

The MODY1 gene for hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha and a feedback loop control COUP-TFII expression in pancreatic beta cells.

Pancreatic islet beta cell differentiation and function are dependent upon a group of transcription factors that maintain the expression of key genes and suppress others. Knockout mice with the heterozygous deletion of the gene for chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II (COUP-TFII) or the complete disruption of the gene for hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF4alpha) in pancreatic beta cells have similar insulin secretion defects, leading us to hypothesize that there is transcriptional cross talk between these two nuclear receptors. Here, we demonstrate specific HNF4alpha activation of a reporter plasmid containing the COUP-TFII gene promoter region in transfected pancreatic beta cells. The stable association of the endogenous HNF4alpha with a region of the COUP-TFII gene promoter that contains a direct repeat 1 (DR-1) binding site was revealed by chromatin immunoprecipitation. Mutation experiments showed that this DR-1 site is essential for HNF4alpha transactivation of COUP-TFII. The dominant negative suppression of HNF4alpha function decreased endogenous COUP-TFII expression, and the specific inactivation of COUP-TFII by small interfering RNA caused HNF4alpha mRNA levels in 832/13 INS-1 cells to decrease. This positive regulation of HNF4alpha by COUP-TFII was confirmed by the adenovirus-mediated overexpression of human COUP-TFII (hCOUP-TFII), which increased HNF4alpha mRNA levels in 832/13 INS-1 cells and in mouse pancreatic islets. Finally, hCOUP-TFII overexpression showed that there is direct COUP-TFII autorepression, as COUP-TFII occupies the proximal DR-1 binding site of its own gene in vivo. Therefore, COUP-TFII may contribute to the control of insulin secretion through the complex HNF4alpha/maturity-onset diabetes of the young 1 (MODY1) transcription factor network operating in beta cells.

Transgenic expression of human INS gene in Ins1/Ins2 double knockout mice leads to insulin underproduction and diabetes in some male mice.

We have generated transgenic mouse lines expressing exclusively a human INS transgene on an Ins1/Ins2 double knockout (mIKO) background. The transgene expression was driven by either a 4000 bp or a 353 bp promoter. These transgenic lines, designated mIKO:INS4000 and mIKO:INS353, were viable and fertile. Determination of the amounts of insulin transcripts and total pancreatic insulin content revealed relative insulin underproduction in both lines, from birth to adulthood. Total pancreatic insulin stores in mIKO:INS4000 and mIKO:INS353 mice represented only about 50% and 27%, respectively, as compared to wild-type mice. Morphometric analysis of pancreas did not show any compensatory beta-cell hyperplasia. The majority of animals in both lines remained normoglycemic throughout their lives. Nevertheless, glucose tolerance tests revealed glucose intolerance in nearly half of mIKO:INS4000 male mice, likely due to impaired insulin secretion detected in those animals. In addition, a small fraction (2-4%) of male mice in both lines spontaneously developed diabetes with very distinct pathophysiological features. Diabetes was never seen in female animals. The diabetes developed by mIKO:INS353 mice was rapidly lethal, accompanied by a dramatic depletion of pancreatic insulin stores whereas the mIKO:INS4000 diabetic animals could live for several months. This suggests a possible link between the structure of the human INS gene promoter and the type of diabetes developed in these lines.

Review: pancreatic beta-cell neogenesis revisited.

Beta-cell neogenesis triggers the generation of new beta-cells from precursor cells. Neogenesis from duct epithelium is the most currently described and the best documented process of differentiation of precursor cells into beta-cells. It is contributes not only to beta-cell mass expansion during fetal and nonatal life but it is also involved in the maintenance of the beta-cell mass in adults. It is also required for the increase in beta-cell mass in situations of increase insulin demand (obesity, pregnancy). A large number of factors controlling the differentiation of beta-cells has been identified. They are classified into the following main categories: growth factors, cytokine and inflammatory factors, and hormones such as PTHrP and GLP-1. The fact that intestinal incretin hormone GLP-1 exerts a major trophic role on pancreatic beta-cells provides insights into the possibility to pharmacologically stimulate beta-cell neogenesis. This could have important implications for the of treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Transdifferentiation, that is, the differentiation of already differentiated cells into beta-cells, remains controversial. However, more and more studies support this concept. The cells, which can potentially "transdifferentiate" into beta-cells, can belong to the pancreas (acinar cells) and even islets, or originate from extra-pancreatic tissues such as the liver. Neogenesis from intra-islet precursors also have been proposed and subpopulations of cell precursors inside islets have been described by some authors. Nestin positive cells, which have been considered as the main candidates, appear rather as progenitors of endothelial cells rather than beta-cells and contribute to angiogenesis rather than neogenesis. To take advantage of the different differentiation processes may be a direction for future cellular therapies. Ultimately, a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in beta-cell neogenesis will allow us to use any type of differentiated and/or undifferentiated cells as a source of potential cell precursors.