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1.
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci ; 62(14): 27, 2021 11 01.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-34846518

ABSTRACT

Purpose: Retinal astrocytes abundantly express connexin 43 (Cx43), a transmembrane protein that forms gap junction (GJ) channels and unopposed hemichannels. While it is well established that Cx43 is upregulated in retinal injuries, it is unclear whether astrocytic Cx43 plays a role in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss associated with injury. Here, we investigated the effect of astrocyte-specific deletion of Cx43 (Cx43KO) and channel inhibitors on RGC loss in retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury and assessed changes in expression and GJ channel and hemichannel function that occur in I/R injury. The effect of Cx43 deletion on neural function in the uninjured retina was also assessed. Methods: Cx43 expression, astrocyte density and morphology, and RGC death in wild-type and Cx43KO mice after I/R injury were determined using immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. Visual function was assessed using ERG recordings. GJ coupling and hemichannel activity were evaluated using tracer coupling and uptake studies, respectively. Results: Loss of RGCs in I/R injury was accompanied by an increase of Cx43 expression in astrocytes. Functional studies indicated that I/R injury augmented astrocytic GJ coupling but not Cx43 hemichannel activity. Importantly, deletion of astrocytic Cx43 improved neuronal survival in acute ischemia but did not affect RGC function in the absence of injury. In support, pharmacologic inhibition of GJ coupling provided neuroprotection in I/R injury. Conclusions: The increase in Cx43 expression and GJ coupling during acute I/R injury exacerbates RGC loss. Inhibition of astrocytic Cx43 channels might represent a useful strategy to promote RGC survival in pathologic conditions.


Subject(s)
Astrocytes/metabolism , Connexin 43/genetics , Gap Junctions/metabolism , Gene Expression Regulation/physiology , Neuroglia/metabolism , Reperfusion Injury/metabolism , Retinal Ganglion Cells/pathology , Animals , Biotin/analogs & derivatives , Biotin/pharmacology , Blotting, Western , Cell Survival , Electroretinography , Immunohistochemistry , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Mice, Knockout , Reperfusion Injury/pathology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/metabolism , Triiodobenzoic Acids/pharmacology
2.
Cell Physiol Biochem ; 54(4): 538-555, 2020 May 23.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-32442363

ABSTRACT

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Maxi-anion channel (Maxi-Cl) is ubiquitously expressed and involved in a number of important cell functions especially by serving as an ATP release pathway. We recently identified SLCO2A1 as its essential core component. However, the regulatory component required for the channel activation/inactivation remains unidentified. METHODS: In the present study, to identify the regulatory component, we made genome-wide analysis combined with siRNA screening and performed patch-clamp studies and ATP release assay after gene silencing and overexpression. RESULTS: Comparative microarray analysis between Maxi-Cl-rich C127 and -deficient C1300 cells revealed highly differential expression not only of SLCO2A1 but also of four annexin family members. Gene silencing study showed that Anxa2 is involved in Maxi-Cl activity. The Maxi-Cl events appeared in C1300 cells by overexpression of Slco2a1 and more efficiently by that of Slco2a1 plus Anxa2. Immunoprecipitation assay supported the interaction between ANXA2 and SLCO2A1. Suppressive effects of overexpression of a phospho-mimicking mutant of Anxa2, Anxa2-Y23E, indicated that protein tyrosine dephosphorylation dependence of Maxi-Cl is conferred by ANXA2. Maxi-Cl activity was suppressed by gene silencing of S100A10, a binding partner of ANXA2, and by applying a synthetic ANXA2 peptide, Ac-(1-14), which interferes with the ANXA2-S100A10 complex formation. Intracellular Ca2+ dependence of Maxi-Cl activity was abolished by S100a10 knockdown. CONCLUSION: The ANXA2-S100A10 complex represents the regulatory component of Maxi-Cl conferring protein tyrosine dephosphorylation dependence and intracellular Ca2+ sensitivity on this channel.


Subject(s)
Annexin A2/metabolism , Calcium/metabolism , Organic Anion Transporters/metabolism , S100 Proteins/metabolism , Tyrosine/metabolism , Animals , Anions , Annexin A2/genetics , Cell Line, Tumor , Gene Silencing , HEK293 Cells , Humans , Mice , Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis , Organic Anion Transporters/genetics , Organic Anion Transporters/physiology , Phosphorylation , RNA, Small Interfering/genetics , RNA, Small Interfering/metabolism , S100 Proteins/genetics , Up-Regulation
3.
Neuroscience ; 393: 61-72, 2018 11 21.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-30312782

ABSTRACT

Cellular communication through chemical synapses is determined by the nature of the neurotransmitter and the composition of postsynaptic receptors. In the excitatory synapse between bipolar and ganglion cells of the retina, postsynaptic AMPA receptors mediate resting activity. During evoked response, however, more abundant and sustained levels of glutamate also activate GluN2B-containing NMDA receptors (NMDARs). This phasic recruitment of distinct glutamate receptors is essential for visual discrimination; however, the fidelity of this basic mechanism under elevated glutamate levels due to aberrant activity, a common pathophysiology, is not known. Here, in both male and female mice with retinal degeneration (rd10), a condition associated with elevated synaptic activity, we reveal that changes in synaptic input to ganglion cells altered both composition and activation of NMDARs. We found that, in contrast to wild type, the spontaneous activity of rd10 cells was largely NMDAR-dependent. Surprisingly, this activity was driven primarily by atypical activation of GluN2A -containing NMDARs, not GluN2B-NMDARs. Indeed, immunohistochemical analyses and Western blot showed greater levels of the GluN2A-NMDAR subunit expression in rd10 retina compared to wild type. Overall, these results demonstrate how aberrant signaling leads to pathway-specific alterations in NMDAR expression and function.


Subject(s)
Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/metabolism , Retina/metabolism , Retinal Degeneration/metabolism , Retinal Ganglion Cells/metabolism , Animals , Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials/physiology , Ganglia, Invertebrate/metabolism , Glutamic Acid/metabolism , Mice , Synapses/physiology
4.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A ; 115(26): E5934-E5943, 2018 06 26.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-29891713

ABSTRACT

Degeneration of retinal astrocytes precedes hypoxia-driven pathologic neovascularization and vascular leakage in ischemic retinopathies. However, the molecular events that underlie astrocyte loss remain unclear. Astrocytes abundantly express connexin 43 (Cx43), a transmembrane protein that forms gap junction (GJ) channels and hemichannels. Cx channels can transfer toxic signals from dying cells to healthy neighbors under pathologic conditions. Here we show that Cx43 plays a critical role in astrocyte apoptosis and the resulting preretinal neovascularization in a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy. Opening of Cx43 hemichannels was not observed following hypoxia. In contrast, GJ coupling between astrocytes increased, which could lead to amplification of injury. Accordingly, conditional deletion of Cx43 maintained a higher density of astrocytes in the hypoxic retina. We also identify a role for Cx43 phosphorylation in mediating these processes. Increased coupling in response to hypoxia is due to phosphorylation of Cx43 by casein kinase 1δ (CK1δ). Suppression of this phosphorylation using an inhibitor of CK1δ or in site-specific phosphorylation-deficient mice similarly protected astrocytes from hypoxic damage. Rescue of astrocytes led to restoration of a functional retinal vasculature and lowered the hypoxic burden, thereby curtailing neovascularization and neuroretinal dysfunction. We also find that absence of astrocytic Cx43 does not affect developmental angiogenesis or neuronal function in normoxic retinas. Our in vivo work directly links phosphorylation of Cx43 to astrocytic coupling and apoptosis and ultimately to vascular regeneration in retinal ischemia. This study reveals that targeting Cx43 phosphorylation in astrocytes is a potential direction for the treatment of proliferative retinopathies.


Subject(s)
Astrocytes/metabolism , Connexin 43/metabolism , Regeneration , Retinal Vessels/physiology , Vitreoretinopathy, Proliferative/metabolism , Animals , Apoptosis , Astrocytes/pathology , Casein Kinase Idelta/metabolism , Cell Hypoxia , Cell Survival , Female , Male , Mice , Phosphorylation , Vitreoretinopathy, Proliferative/pathology , Vitreoretinopathy, Proliferative/physiopathology
5.
J Comp Neurol ; 522(18): 4085-99, 2014 Dec 15.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-25099614

ABSTRACT

Retinal degeneration describes a group of disorders which lead to progressive photoreceptor cell death, resulting in blindness. As this occurs, retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) begin to develop oscillatory physiological activity. Here we studied the morphological and physiological properties of RGCs in rd1 mice, aged 30-60 days, to determine how this aberrant activity correlates with morphology. Patch-clamp recordings of excitatory and inhibitory currents were performed, then dendritic structures were visualized by infusion of fluorescent dye. Only RGCs with oscillatory activity were selected for further analysis. Oscillatory frequency and power were calculated using power spectral density analysis of recorded currents. Dendritic arbor stratification, total length, and area were measured from confocal microscope image stacks. These measurements were used to sort RGCs by cluster analysis using Ward's Method. This resulted in a total of 10 clusters, with monostratified and bistratified cells having five clusters each. Both populations exhibited correlations between arbor stratification and aberrant inhibitory input, while excitatory input did not vary with arbor distribution. These findings illustrate the relationship between aberrant activity and RGC morphology at early stages of retinal degeneration.


Subject(s)
Retinal Degeneration/pathology , Retinal Degeneration/physiopathology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/pathology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/physiology , Synapses/physiology , Animals , Cluster Analysis , Dendrites/pathology , Dendrites/physiology , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Image Processing, Computer-Assisted , Male , Mice, Transgenic , Microscopy, Confocal , Mutation , Patch-Clamp Techniques
6.
Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci ; 55(1): 78-86, 2014 Jan 03.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24346172

ABSTRACT

PURPOSE: Interactions between vasculature and neurons provide important insight into the function of the nervous system, as well as into neurological diseases wherein these interactions are disrupted. This study characterizes a previously unreported retinal vascular plexus and examines potential sites of neurovascular interaction. METHODS: Vascular, neuronal, and glial elements were visualized using immunohistochemical markers. The distribution of vascular layers was measured and compared across eccentricities. Intensity profiles were calculated from confocal image reconstructions to reveal the proximity of vasculature to neuronal and glial processes. RESULTS: Retinal vasculature forms a plexus that coincides with the dendritic processes of OFF cholinergic amacrine cells within the inner plexiform layer. Across eccentricities, this plexus comprises approximately 8% of the total length of horizontally running blood vessels in the retina. Processes of Müller glia and OFF cholinergic amacrine cells colocalize with the blood vessels that form the intersublaminar plexus. CONCLUSIONS: In the retina, vasculature lacks autonomic control, but shows efficient local regulation. Although the source of this regulation is unclear, these results suggest that cholinergic amacrine cells and Müller glia may interact with the intersublaminar plexus to influence vasomotor activity. This may indicate a key role in modulating reciprocal interactions between neuronal activity and blood flow.


Subject(s)
Neurons/cytology , Retinal Vessels/innervation , Retinal Vessels/physiology , Animals , Disease Models, Animal , Female , Immunohistochemistry , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Neurons/physiology
7.
PLoS One ; 8(10): e77658, 2013.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24204906

ABSTRACT

Spontaneous rhythmic activity is a hallmark feature of the developing retina, where propagating retinal waves instruct axonal targeting and synapse formation. Retinal waves cease around the time of eye-opening; however, the fate of the underlying synaptic circuitry is unknown. Whether retinal waves are unique to the developing retina or if they can be induced in adulthood is not known. Combining patch-clamp techniques with calcium imaging, we demonstrate that propagative events persist in adult mouse retina when it is deprived of inhibitory input. This activity originates in bipolar cells, resembling glutamatergic stage III retinal waves. We find that, as it develops, the network interactions progressively curtail this activity. Together, this provides evidence that the correlated propagative neuronal activity can be induced in adult retina following the blockade of inhibitory interactions.


Subject(s)
Calcium/metabolism , Retina/physiology , Animals , Calcium Channels/metabolism , Female , Male , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Neurogenesis/physiology , Periodicity , Retinal Bipolar Cells/physiology , Synaptic Transmission/physiology
8.
J Neurosci ; 33(35): 13972-7, 2013 Aug 28.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23986234

ABSTRACT

Retinal degeneration leads to progressive photoreceptor cell death, resulting in vision loss. Subsequently, inner retinal neurons develop aberrant synaptic activity, compounding visual impairment. In retinal ganglion cells, light responses driven by surviving photoreceptors are obscured by elevated levels of aberrant spiking activity. Here, we demonstrate in rd10 mice that targeting disruptive neuronal circuitry with a gap junction antagonist can significantly reduce excessive spiking. This treatment increases the sensitivity of the degenerated retina to light stimuli driven by residual photoreceptors. Additionally, this enhances signal transmission from inner retinal neurons to ganglion cells, potentially allowing the retinal network to preserve the fidelity of signals either from prosthetic electronic devices, or from cells optogenetically modified to transduce light. Thus, targeting maladaptive changes to the retina allows for treatments to use existing neuronal tissue to restore light sensitivity, and to augment existing strategies to replace lost photoreceptors.


Subject(s)
Gap Junctions/drug effects , Light Signal Transduction/drug effects , Retinal Degeneration/genetics , Action Potentials/drug effects , Animals , Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterases, Type 6/genetics , Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials , Gap Junctions/physiology , In Vitro Techniques , Light , Light Signal Transduction/genetics , Meclofenamic Acid/pharmacology , Meclofenamic Acid/therapeutic use , Mice , Mice, Transgenic , Photoreceptor Cells/physiology , Retinal Degeneration/drug therapy , Retinal Ganglion Cells/physiology , Vision, Ocular/drug effects , Vision, Ocular/genetics
9.
J Neurosci Methods ; 214(1): 105-12, 2013 Mar 30.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-23370309

ABSTRACT

In this manuscript, we describe a protocol for capturing both physiological and structural properties of living neuronal tissue. An essential aspect of this method is its flexibility and fast turnaround time. It is a streamlined process that includes recording of electrophysiological neuronal activity, calcium imaging, and structural analysis. This is accomplished by placing intact tissue on a modified Millicell Biopore insert. The Biopore membrane suspends the tissue in the perfusion solution, allowing for complete access to nutrients, oxygen, and pharmacological agents. The ring that holds the membrane ensures its structural stability; forceps can be used to grip the ring without contacting the filter or the tissue, for easy transfer between multiple setups. We show that tissue readily adheres to the surface of the membrane, its entire surface is visible in transmitted light and accessible for recording and imaging, and remains responsive to physiological stimuli for extended periods of time.


Subject(s)
Electrophysiology/instrumentation , Retina/physiology , Tissue Culture Techniques/instrumentation , Aniline Compounds/analysis , Animals , Bacterial Proteins/genetics , Brain/physiology , Brain/ultrastructure , Calcium/analysis , Costs and Cost Analysis , Culture Media , Electrophysiology/methods , Fluoresceins/analysis , Fluorescent Dyes/analysis , Genes, Reporter , Luminescent Proteins/genetics , Membranes, Artificial , Mice , Mice, Inbred C57BL , Microscopy, Confocal , Microscopy, Fluorescence , Patch-Clamp Techniques , Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/physiology , Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate/radiation effects , Polytetrafluoroethylene , Retina/radiation effects , Retinal Bipolar Cells/physiology , Retinal Bipolar Cells/radiation effects , Retinal Ganglion Cells/physiology , Retinal Ganglion Cells/radiation effects , Retinal Vessels/ultrastructure , Rhodamines , Time Factors , Tissue Culture Techniques/economics
10.
J Vis Exp ; (82): e51018, 2013 Dec 13.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-24379013

ABSTRACT

Working with delicate tissue can be a complicating factor when performing immunohistochemical assessment. Here, we present a method that utilizes a ring-supported hydrophilized PTFE membrane to provide structural support to both living and fixed tissue during immunohistochemical processing, which allows for the use of a variety of protocols that would otherwise cause damage to the tissue. First, this is demonstrated with bolus loading of fluorescent markers into living retinal tissue. This method allows for quick visualization of targeted structures, while the membrane support maintains tissue integrity during the injection and allows for easy transfer of the preparation for further imaging or processing. Second, a procedure for antibody staining in tissue fixed with carbodiimide is described. Though paraformaldehyde fixation is more common, carbodiimide fixation provides a superior substrate for the visualization of synaptic proteins. A limitation of carbodiimide is that the resulting fixed tissue is relatively fragile; however, this is overcome with the use of the supporting membrane. Retinal tissue is used to demonstrate these techniques, but they may be applied to any fragile tissue.


Subject(s)
Immunohistochemistry/methods , Retina/anatomy & histology , Retina/chemistry , Tissue Fixation/methods , Animals , Carbodiimides/chemistry , Fluorescent Dyes/chemistry , Formaldehyde/chemistry , Membranes, Artificial , Mice , Polymers/chemistry , Polytetrafluoroethylene/chemistry , Retina/metabolism , Synapses/chemistry , Synapses/metabolism
11.
Front Syst Neurosci ; 6: 8, 2012.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-22383900

ABSTRACT

Neural oscillations play an important role in normal brain activity, but also manifest during Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and other pathological conditions. The contribution of these aberrant oscillations to the function of the surviving brain remains unclear. In recording from retina in a mouse model of retinal degeneration (RD), we found that the incidence of oscillatory activity varied across different cell classes, evidence that some retinal networks are more affected by functional changes than others. This aberrant activity was driven by an independent inhibitory amacrine cell oscillator. By stimulating the surviving circuitry at different stages of the neurodegenerative process, we found that this dystrophic oscillator further compromises the function of the retina. These data reveal that retinal remodeling can exacerbate the visual deficit, and that aberrant synaptic activity could be targeted for RD treatment.

12.
Am J Physiol Cell Physiol ; 297(4): C990-1000, 2009 Oct.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-19657061

ABSTRACT

The maxi-anion channel with a large single-channel conductance of >300 pS, and unknown molecular identity, is functionally expressed in a large variety of cell types. The channel is activated by a number of experimental maneuvers such as exposing cells to hypotonic or ischemic stress. The most effective and consistent method of activating it is patch membrane excision. However, the activation mechanism of the maxi-anion channel remains poorly understood at present. In the present study, involvement of phosphorylation/dephosphorylation in excision-induced activation was examined. In mouse mammary fibroblastic C127 cells, activity of the channel was suppressed by intracellular application of Mg-ATP, but not Mg-5'-adenylylimidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP), in a concentration-dependent manner. When a cocktail of broad-spectrum tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors was applied, channel activation was completely abolished, whereas inhibitors of serine/threonine protein phosphatases had no effect. On the other hand, protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors brought the channel out of an inactivated state. In mouse adult skin fibroblasts (MAFs) in primary culture, similar maxi-anion channels were found to be activated on membrane excision, in a manner sensitive to tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors. In MAFs isolated from animals deficient in receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase (RPTP)zeta, activation of the maxi-anion channel was significantly slower and less prominent compared with that observed in wild-type MAFs; however, channel activation was restored by transfection of the RPTPzeta gene. Thus it is concluded that activation of the maxi-anion channel involves protein dephosphorylation mediated by protein tyrosine phosphatases that include RPTPzeta in mouse fibroblasts, but not in C127 cells.


Subject(s)
Ion Channels/metabolism , Tyrosine/metabolism , Adenosine Triphosphate/pharmacology , Adenosine Triphosphate/physiology , Adenylyl Imidodiphosphate/pharmacology , Adenylyl Imidodiphosphate/physiology , Animals , Anions/metabolism , Cell Line , Enzyme Inhibitors/pharmacology , Fibroblasts/metabolism , Ion Channel Gating , Magnesium , Mice , Phosphorylation , Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases, Class 5/antagonists & inhibitors , Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases, Class 5/genetics , Receptor-Like Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases, Class 5/physiology , Signal Transduction
13.
Cell Res ; 18(5): 558-65, 2008 May.
Article in English | MEDLINE | ID: mdl-18414449

ABSTRACT

In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the pathways contributing to ATP release from mouse astrocytes during hypoosmotic stress. We first examined the expression of mRNAs for proteins constituting possible ATP-releasing pathways that have been suggested over the past several years. In RT-PCR analysis using both control and osmotically swollen astrocytes, amplification of cDNA fragments of expected size was seen for connexins (Cx32, Cx37, Cx43), pannexin 1 (Px1), the P2X7 receptor, MRP1 and MDR1, but not CFTR. Inhibitors of exocytotic vesicular release, gap junction hemi-channels, CFTR, MRP1, MDR1, the P2X7 receptor, and volume-sensitive outwardly rectifying chloride channels had no significant effects on the massive ATP release from astrocytes. In contrast, the hypotonicity-induced ATP release from astrocytes was most effectively inhibited by gadolinium (50 muM), an inhibitor of the maxi-anion channel, which has recently been shown to serve as a pathway for ATP release from several other cell types. Thus, we propose that the maxi-anion channel constitutes a major pathway for swelling-induced ATP release from cultured mouse astrocytes as well.


Subject(s)
Adenosine Triphosphate/metabolism , Astrocytes/metabolism , Ion Channels/metabolism , Animals , Astrocytes/cytology , Astrocytes/drug effects , Cells, Cultured , Connexins/genetics , Gadolinium/pharmacology , Mice , Nerve Tissue Proteins/genetics , Osmolar Concentration , RNA, Messenger/genetics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Receptors, Purinergic P2/genetics , Receptors, Purinergic P2X7 , Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
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