Lower than low: Perspectives on zero- to ultralow-field nuclear magnetic resonance.

The less-traveled low road in nuclear magnetic resonance is discussed, honoring the contributions of Prof. Bernhard Blümich, aspiring towards reaching 'a new low.' A history of the subject and its current status are briefly reviewed, followed by an effort to prophesy possible directions for future developments.

Calculated signal-to-noise ratio of MRI detected with SQUIDs and Faraday detectors in fields from 10 microT to 1.5 T.

We examine the calculated signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) achievable with different MRI detection modalities in precession fields ranging from 10 microT to 1.5 T. In particular, we compare traditional Faraday detectors with both tuned and untuned detectors based on superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). We derive general expressions for the magnetic field noise due to the samples and the detectors, and then calculate the SNR achievable for a specific geometry with each modality with and without prepolarization. We show that each of the three modalities is superior in one of the three field ranges. SQUID-based detection is superior to conventional Faraday detection for MRI in precession fields below 250 mT for a 65 mm diameter surface coil placed a distance of 25 mm from the voxel of interest embedded in a cylinder of tissue 50 mm tall and of radius 50 mm. This crossover field, however, is sensitive to the geometry.

Prostate spectroscopy at 3 Tesla using two-dimensional S-PRESS.

Two-dimensional (2D) strong-coupling point-resolved spectroscopy (S-PRESS) is introduced as a novel approach to (1)H MR spectroscopy (MRS) in the prostate. The technique provides full spectral information and allows for an accurate characterization of the citrate (Cit) signal. The method is based on acquiring a series of PRESS spectra with constant total echo time (TE). The indirect dimension is encoded by varying the relative lengths of the first and second TEs (TE(1) + TE(2) = TE). In the resulting 2D spectra, only the signal of strongly coupled spin systems is spread into the second dimension, which leads to more clearly arranged spectra. Furthermore, the spectral parameters of Cit (coupling constant J and chemical shift difference delta of the AB spin system) can be determined with high accuracy in vivo. The sequence is analytically optimized for maximal "strong coupling peaks" of Cit at 3T. 2D S-PRESS spectra are compared with JPRESS spectra in vitro as well as in vivo.

Optimizing PRESS localized citrate detection at 3 Tesla.

Analytical methods are used to characterize the response of the strongly coupled two-spin system of citrate to point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS)-based sequences at 3 T. The signal output is analyzed line by line, as well as in the Cartesian product operator basis. Patterns with a periodicity of 80.9 ms are identified. Furthermore, it is shown that at TE = n . 80.9 ms (n in {0,1,2,...}), the spin evolution can be described without direct reference to strong coupling terms. The theoretical results are found to be in good agreement with in vivo experiments. These results can be used to design protocols for prostate MRS and MRSI at 3 T, and give guidelines for optimizing spin-echo-based acquisition schemes for detecting two-spin systems at arbitrary field strengths.

SQUID-detected MRI at 132 microT with T1-weighted contrast established at 10 microT--300 mT.

T(1)-weighted contrast MRI with prepolarization was detected with a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). A spin evolution period in a variable field between prepolarization and detection enabled the measurement of T(1) in fields between 1.7 microT and 300 mT; T(1) dispersion curves of agarose gel samples over five decades in frequency were obtained. SQUID detection at 5.6 kHz drastically reduces the field homogeneity requirements compared to conventional field-cycling methods using Faraday coil detection. This allows T(1) dispersion measurements to be easily combined with MRI, so that T(1) in a wide range of fields can be used for tissue contrast. Images of gel phantoms with T(1)-weighted contrast at four different fields between 10 microT and 300 mT demonstrated dramatic contrast enhancement in low fields. A modified inversion recovery technique further enhanced the contrast by selectively suppressing the signal contribution for a specific value of the low-field T(1).

Chemical-shift-selective filter for the in vivo detection of J-coupled metabolites at 3T.

A chemical-shift-selective filter (CSSF) was applied to the detection of J-coupled metabolites in the human brain. This filter is an acquisition-based technique that requires the chemical shifts (CS's) of different metabolites, but not their whole multiplet structures, to be resolved. The sequence is based on the 2D constant-time spin-echo experiment, which yields pure CS spectra in the indirect dimension. Localization is achieved through point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS). The method enables unequivocal detection of glutamate and myo-inositol, both in vitro and in vivo in the human brain, at 3T.

Zero- to low-field MRI with averaging of concomitant gradient fields.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) encounters fundamental limits in circumstances in which the static magnetic field is not sufficiently strong to truncate unwanted, so-called concomitant components of the gradient field. This limitation affects the attainable optimal image fidelity and resolution most prominently in low-field imaging. In this article, we introduce the use of pulsed magnetic-field averaging toward relaxing these constraints. It is found that the image of an object can be retrieved by pulsed low fields in the presence of the full spatial variation of the imaging encoding gradient field even in the absence of the typical uniform high-field time-independent contribution. In addition, error-compensation schemes can be introduced through the application of symmetrized pulse sequences. Such schemes substantially mitigate artifacts related to evolution in strong magnetic-field gradients, magnetic fields that vary in direction and orientation, and imperfections of the applied field pulses.

Microtesla MRI with a superconducting quantum interference device.

MRI scanners enable fast, noninvasive, and high-resolution imaging of organs and soft tissue. The images are reconstructed from NMR signals generated by nuclear spins that precess in a static magnetic field B0 in the presence of magnetic field gradients. Most clinical MRI scanners operate at a magnetic field B0 = 1.5 T, corresponding to a proton resonance frequency of 64 MHz. Because these systems rely on large superconducting magnets, they are costly and demanding of infrastructure. On the other hand, low-field imagers have the potential to be less expensive, less confining, and more mobile. The major obstacle is the intrinsically low sensitivity of the low-field NMR experiment. Here, we show that prepolarization of the nuclear spins and detection with a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) yield a signal that is independent of B0, allowing acquisition of high-resolution MRIs in microtesla fields. Reduction of the strength of the measurement field eliminates inhomogeneous broadening of the NMR lines, resulting in enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and spatial resolution for a fixed strength of the magnetic field gradients used to encode the image. We present high-resolution images of phantoms and other samples and T1-weighted contrast images acquired in highly inhomogeneous magnetic fields of 132 microT; here, T1 is the spin-lattice relaxation time. These techniques could readily be adapted to existing multichannel SQUID systems used for magnetic source imaging of brain signals. Further potential applications include low-cost systems for tumor screening and imaging peripheral regions of the body.

In vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy of individual human brain metabolites at moderate field strengths.

This article reviews spectral editing techniques for in vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy of human brain tissue at moderate field strengths of 1.5-3 Tesla. Various aspects of 1H NMR spectroscopy are discussed with regard to in vivo applications. The parameter set [delta, J, n] (delta being the relative chemical shift, J the scalar coupling constant and n the number of coupled spins) is used to characterize the spin systems under investigation and to classify the editing techniques that are used in in vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy.

Liquid-state NMR and scalar couplings in microtesla magnetic fields.

We obtained nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra of liquids in fields of a few microtesla, using prepolarization in fields of a few millitesla and detection with a dc superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). Because the sensitivity of the SQUID is frequency independent, we enhanced both signal-to-noise ratio and spectral resolution by detecting the NMR signal in extremely low magnetic fields, where the NMR lines become very narrow even for grossly inhomogeneous measurement fields. In the absence of chemical shifts, proton-phosphorous scalar (J) couplings have been detected, indicating the presence of specific covalent bonds. This observation opens the possibility for "pure J spectroscopy" as a diagnostic tool for the detection of molecules in low magnetic fields.