Attributes of preemptive conservation efforts for species precluded from listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

Preemptive conservation efforts to reduce threats have been credited with precluding the need to list some imperiled species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA). Such efforts can result in outcomes where species are conserved and regulatory costs associated with ESA listing are avoided. Yet, the extent and type of conservation effort involved in achieving preclusion from listing are not well understood. We quantified the attributes of conservation efforts identified as important for 43 species whose preclusion from listing was attributed to conservation efforts, as described in U.S. Federal Register documents that report the decisions not to list. We considered 2 features of preemptive conservation: effort applied (measured as the number of conservation initiatives) and number of conservation partners involved. We also quantified the type and location of conservation actions. We found a mean of 4.3 initiatives (range 1-22) and 8.2 partners (range 1-31) documented per precluded species; both measures of conservation effort were significantly and positively associated with the species' range area and the proportion of private land across its range. The number of initiatives was also positively related to the number of threats affecting a species. Locations of conservation actions varied; more species had actions on public land than on private land (p = 0.003). Numbers of species with restorative actions (e.g., invasive species control) were similar to numbers with prohibitive actions. Our findings highlight relationships between species' context and preemptive conservation activities, providing a first cross-species analysis of conservation efforts for species that were precluded from listing under the ESA due to conservation.

Atributos de los esfuerzos preventivos de conservación para las especies excluidas del listado de la Ley de Especies en Peligro de Extinción de Estados Unidos Resumen A los esfuerzos preventivos de conservación para reducir las amenazas se les atribuye la exclusión de algunas especies en peligro de la lista de la Ley de Especies en Peligro de Extinción de los Estados Unidos (ESA, en inglés). Dichos esfuerzos pueden tener resultados en los que se protegen las especies y se evitan los costos regulatorios asociados con el listado de la ESA, pero no se sabe mucho sobre el alcance y el tipo de esfuerzo de conservación involucrados en la exclusión del listado. Cuantificamos los atributos de los esfuerzos de conservación identificados como importantes para 43 especies cuya exclusión del listado fue atribuida a los esfuerzos de conservación, descrito así en los documentos del Registro Federal de los EUA que reportan las razones para no incluirlas en la lista. Consideramos dos características de la conservación preventiva: el esfuerzo aplicado (medido como el número de iniciativas de conservación) y el número de socios de conservación involucrados. También cuantificamos el tipo y ubicación de las acciones de conservación. Obtuvimos una media de 4.3 iniciativas (rango 1­22) y 8.2 socios (rango 1­31) documentados por especie excluida; ambas medidas del esfuerzo de conservación tuvieron una asociación significativa y positiva con el área de distribución de la especie y la proporción de suelo privado en esta distribución. El número de iniciativas también tuvo una relación positiva con el número de amenazas para las especies. Las ubicaciones de las acciones de conservación variaron y más especies contaban con acciones en suelo público que en suelo privado (p = 0.003). El número de especies que contaban con acciones de restauración (p. ej.: control de especies invasoras) fue similar a aquellas con acciones prohibitivas. Nuestros hallazgos resaltan la relación entre el contexto de la especie y las actividades preventivas de conservación, lo que proporciona un primer análisis entre especies de los esfuerzos de conservación para especies excluidas de la ESA por cuestiones de conservación.

Factors associated with preemptive conservation under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.

In recent decades, there has been an increasing emphasis on proactive efforts to conserve species being considered for listing under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) before they are listed (i.e., preemptive conservation). These efforts, which depend on voluntary actions by public and private land managers across the species' range, aim to conserve species while avoiding regulatory costs associated with ESA listing. We collected data for a set of social, economic, environmental, and institutional factors that we hypothesized would influence voluntary decisions to promote or inhibit preemptive conservation of species under consideration for ESA listing. We used logistic regression to estimate the association of these factors with preemptive conservation outcomes based on data for a set of species that entered the ESA listing process and were either officially listed (n = 314) or preemptively conserved (n = 73) from 1996 to 2018. Factors significantly associated with precluded listing due to preemptive conservation included high baseline conservation status, low proportion of private land across the species' range, small total range size, exposure to specific types of threats, and species' range extending over several states. These results highlight strategies that can help improve conservation outcomes, such as allocating resources for imperiled species earlier in the listing process, addressing specific threats, and expanding incentives and coordination mechanisms for conservation on private lands.

Factores asociados a la conservación preventiva bajo el Acta de Especies en Peligro de los EE. UU. Resumen Durante las últimas décadas ha existido un incremento en los esfuerzos proactivos para conservar a las especies consideradas para ser incluidas en el Acta de Especies en Peligro de los EE. UU. (AEP) antes de ser añadidas a la lista (es decir, conservación preventiva). Estos esfuerzos, que dependen de las acciones voluntarias realizadas por los administradores de las tierras públicas y privadas en la distribución de la especie, buscan conservar a la especie y evitar los costos reglamentarios asociados con su inclusión en el AEP. Recolectamos datos para un conjunto de factores sociales, económicos, ambientales e institucionales que planteamos influirían sobre las decisiones voluntarias para promover o inhibir la conservación preventiva de las especies consideradas para ser enlistadas en el AEP. Usamos la regresión logística para estimar la asociación de estos factores con los resultados de la conservación preventiva con base en los datos de un conjunto de especies que entraron al proceso de listado en el AEP y que terminaron en la lista oficial (n = 314) o con conservación preventiva (n = 73) entre 1996 y 2018. Los factores asociados significativamente con el listado excluyente debido a la conservación preventiva incluyeron: un estado de conservación con una línea base elevada, una baja proporción de suelo privado en la distribución de la especie, un tamaño pequeño de la distribución total, la exposición a tipos específicos de amenazas, y la distribución de la especie extendida por varios estados. Estos resultados resaltan las estrategias que pueden ayudar a mejorar los resultados de conservación, como la asignación anticipada de recursos para especies en peligro durante el proceso de listado, abordar las amenazas específicas y la expansión de incentivos y mecanismos de coordinación para la conservación en suelo privado.

Private land conservation decision-making: An integrative social science model.

Owners and managers of private lands make decisions that have implications well beyond the boundaries of their land, influencing species conservation, water quality, wildfire risk, and other environmental outcomes with important societal and ecological consequences. Understanding how these decisions are made is key for informing interventions to support better outcomes. However, explanations of the drivers of decision making are often siloed in social science disciplines that differ in focus, theory, methodology, and terminology, hindering holistic understanding. To address these challenges, we propose a conceptual model of private land conservation decision-making that integrates theoretical perspectives from three dominant disciplines: economics, sociology, and psychology. The model highlights how heterogeneity in behavior across decision-makers is driven by interactions between the decision context, attributes of potential conservation behaviors, and attributes of the decision-maker. These differences in both individual attributes and context shape decision-makers' constraints and the potential and perceived consequences of a behavior. The model also captures how perceived consequences are evaluated and weighted through a decision-making process that may range from systematic to heuristic, ultimately resulting in selection of a behavior. Outcomes of private land behaviors across the landscape feed back to alter the socio-environmental conditions that shape future decisions. The conceptual model is designed to facilitate better communication, collaboration, and integration across disciplines and points to methodological innovations that can expand understanding of private land decision-making. The model also can be used to illuminate how behavior change interventions (e.g., policies, regulations, technical assistance) could be designed to target different drivers to encourage environmentally and socially beneficial behaviors on private lands.

Foraging strategy mediates ectotherm predator-prey responses to climate warming.

Climate warming and species traits interact to influence predator performance, including individual feeding and growth rates. However, the effects of an important trait-predator foraging strategy-are largely unknown. We investigated the interactions between predator foraging strategy and temperature on two ectotherm predators: an active predator, the backswimmer Notonecta undulata, and a sit-and-wait predator, the damselfly Enallagma annexum. In a series of predator-prey experiments across a temperature gradient, we measured predator feeding rates on an active prey species, zooplankton Daphnia pulex, predator growth rates, and mechanisms that influence predator feeding: body speed of predators and prey (here measured as swimming speed), prey encounter rates, capture success, attack rates, and handling time. Overall, warming led to increased feeding rates for both predators through changes to each component of the predator's functional response. We found that prey swimming speed strongly increased with temperature. The active predator's swimming speed also increased with temperature, and together, the increase in predator and prey swimming speed resulted in twofold higher prey encounter rates for the active predator at warmer temperatures. By contrast, prey encounter rates of the sit-and-wait predator increased fourfold with rising temperatures as a result of increased prey swimming speed. Concurrently, increased prey swimming speed was associated with a decline in the active predator's capture success at high temperatures, whereas the sit-and-wait predator's capture success slightly increased with temperature. We provide some of the first evidence that foraging traits mediate the indirect effects of warming on predator performance. Understanding how traits influence species' responses to warming could clarify how climate change will affect entire functional groups of species.