Structure and Energetic Contributions of a Designed Modular Peptide-Binding Protein with Picomolar Affinity.

Natural armadillo repeat proteins (nArmRP) like importin-α or ß-catenin bind their target peptides such that each repeat interacts with a dipeptide unit within the stretched target peptide. However, this modularity is imperfect and also restricted to short peptide stretches of usually four to six consecutive amino acids. Here we report the development and characterization of a regularized and truly modular peptide-specific binding protein, based on designed armadillo repeat proteins (dArmRP), binding to peptides of alternating lysine and arginine residues (KR)n. dArmRP were obtained from nArmRP through cycles of extensive protein engineering, which rendered them more uniform. This regularity is reflected in the consistent binding of dArmRP to (KR)-peptides, where affinities depend on the lengths of target peptides and the number of internal repeats in a very systematic manner, thus confirming the modularity of the interaction. This exponential dependency between affinity and recognition length suggests that each module adds a constant increment of binding energy to sequence-specific recognition. This relationship was confirmed by comprehensive mutagenesis studies that also reveal the importance of individual peptide side chains. The 1.83 Å resolution crystal structure of a dArmRP with five identical internal repeats in complex with the cognate (KR)5 peptide proves a modular binding mode, where each dipeptide is recognized by one internal repeat. The confirmation of this true modularity over longer peptide stretches lays the ground for the design of binders with different specificities and tailored affinities by the assembly of dipeptide-specific modules based on armadillo repeats.

Stabilizing membrane proteins through protein engineering.

Integral membrane proteins (IMPs) are crucial components of all cells but are difficult to study in vitro because they are generally unstable when removed from their native membranes using detergents. Despite the major biomedical relevance of IMPs, less than 1% of Protein Data Bank (PDB) entries are IMP structures, reflecting the technical gap between studies of soluble proteins compared to IMPs. Stability can be engineered into IMPs by inserting stabilizing mutations, thereby generating proteins that can be successfully applied to biochemical and structural studies when solubilized in detergent micelles. The identification of stabilizing mutations is not trivial, and this review will focus on the methods that have been used to identify stabilized membrane proteins, including alanine scanning and screening, directed evolution and computational design.

Designed Armadillo repeat proteins: library generation, characterization and selection of peptide binders with high specificity.

Designed Armadillo repeat proteins (ArmRPs) are a novel class of binding proteins intended for general modular peptide binding and have very favorable expression and stability properties. Using a combination of sequence and structural consensus analyses, we generated a 42-amino-acid designed Armadillo repeat module with six randomized positions, having a theoretical diversity of 9.9×10(6) per repeat. Structural considerations were used to replace cysteine residues, to define less conserved positions and to decide where to introduce randomized amino acid residues for potential interactions with the target peptide. Based on these concepts, combinatorial libraries of designed ArmRPs were assembled. The most stable version of designed ArmRP in library format was the N5C format, with three randomized library repeat modules flanked by full consensus repeat modules on either side and, in turn, flanked by N- and C-terminal capping repeats. Unselected members of this library were well expressed in the Escherichia coli cytoplasm, monomeric and showed the expected CD spectra and cooperative unfolding. N5C libraries were used in ribosome display selections against the peptide neurotensin. Highly specific peptide binders were enriched after four rounds of selections using ribosome display. Four peptide side chains were shown to contribute most of the interaction energy, and single alanine mutants could be discriminated. Thus, designed ArmRP libraries can become valuable sources for peptide binding molecules because of their favorable biophysical properties and with a potential for application in general modular peptide recognition.

FKBP22 is part of chaperone/folding catalyst complexes in the endoplasmic reticulum of Neurospora crassa.

FKBP22 is a dimeric protein in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum, which exhibits a chaperone as well as a PPIase activity. It binds via its FK506 binding protein (FKBP) domain directly to the Hsp70 chaperone BiP that stimulates the chaperone activity of FKBP22. Here we demonstrate additionally the association of FKBP22 with the molecular chaperones and folding catalysts Grp170, alpha-subunit of glucosidase II, PDI, ERp38, and CyP23. These proteins are associated with FKBP22 in at least two protein complexes. Furthermore, we report an essential role for FKBP22 in the development of microconidiophores in Neurospora crassa.

Neurospora crassa FKBP22 is a novel ER chaperone and functionally cooperates with BiP.

FK506 binding proteins (FKBPs) belong to the family of peptidyl prolyl cis-trans isomerases (PPIases) catalyzing the cis/trans isomerisation of Xaa-Pro bonds in oligopeptides and proteins. FKBPs are involved in folding, assembly and trafficking of proteins. However, only limited knowledge is available about the roles of FKBPs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and their interaction with other proteins. Here we show the ER located Neurospora crassa FKBP22 to be a dimeric protein with PPIase and a novel chaperone activity. While the homodimerization of FKBP22 is mediated by its carboxy-terminal domain, the amino-terminal domain is a functional FKBP domain. The chaperone activity is mediated by the FKBP domain but is exhibited only by the full-length protein. We further demonstrate a direct interaction between FKBP22 and BiP, the major Hsp70 chaperone in the ER. The binding to BiP is mediated by the FKBP domain of FKBP22. Interestingly BiP enhances the chaperone activity of FKBP22. Both proteins form a stable complex with an unfolded substrate protein and thereby prevent its aggregation. These results suggest that BiP and FKBP22 form a folding helper complex with a high chaperoning capacity in the ER of Neurospora crassa.