Use of Noninvasive Ventilation in Respiratory Failure After Extubation During Postoperative Care in Pediatrics.

The purpose of this study was to determine the rate of failure of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) after cardiac surgery in pediatric patients with respiratory failure after extubation and to identify predictive success factors. This was a prospective cohort study of pediatric patients diagnosed with congenital heart disease who underwent heart surgery and used NIV. Data were collected from 170 patients with a median age of 2 months. No patient presented cardiorespiratory arrest nor any other complication during the use of NIV. The success rate for the use of NIV was 61.8%. Subjects were divided for analysis into successful and failed NIV groups. Statistical analysis used Chi-square, Mann-Whitney, and Student's t tests, which were performed after univariate and multivariate logistic regression for p < 0.05. In the multivariate analysis, only the minimal pressure gradient (OR 1.45 with p = 0.007), maximum oxygen saturation (OR 0.88 with p = 0.011), and maximum fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) (OR 1.16 with p < 0.001) influenced NIV failure. The following variables did not present a statistical difference: extracorporeal circulation time (p = 0.669), pulmonary hypertension (p = 0.254), genetic syndrome (p = 0.342), RACHS-1 score (p = 0.097), age (p = 0.098), invasive mechanical ventilation duration (p = 0.186), and NIV duration (p = 0.804). In conclusion, NIV can be successfully used in children who, after cardiac surgery, develop respiratory failure in the 48 h following extubation. Although the use of higher pressure gradients and higher FiO2 are associated with a greater failure rate for NIV use, it was found to be generally safe.

Risk Factors for Mortality and Outcomes in Pediatric Acute Lung Injury/Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: Children admitted to PICUs often present with or develop respiratory failure that requires mechanical ventilation. We prospectively identified children admitted to three general PICUs, with the goal of identifying risk factors for mortality. DESIGN: Prospective multicenter observational study. SETTING: Three general PICUs, two in São Paulo and one in Curitiba, Brazil. PATIENTS: Children aged between 1 month and 15 years, consecutively admitted between August 2008 and July 2010, with acute lung injury or acute respiratory distress syndrome that developed at least 12 hours after invasive or noninvasive mechanical ventilation. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We used logistic regression models to explore the relationship between death and independent variables. Of 3,046 patients admitted to the three PICUs, 1,658 patients underwent mechanical ventilation, and 84 fulfilled the acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Nearly 60% were boys, and the median age was 31 months. Pressure control/assist control was the initial mode of mechanical ventilation in 86% of cases, and the median durations of mechanical ventilation and PICU stay were 12 and 15 days, respectively. None of the eight patients with acute lung injury died, whereas 33 of 76 of the remaining patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome died, for an overall mortality rate of 39.3% (95% CI, 28.8-50.6%). In different multivariate logistic regression model, the number of organ dysfunctions at admission, peak inspiratory pressure, airway pressure gradient on day 1, and the mean airway pressure gradient over the first 7 days of mechanical ventilation were significantly associated with mortality. CONCLUSION: Mortality is high in pediatric acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome. Mechanical ventilation-associated risk factors for death among such patients are potential targets for intervention.

Glucocorticoid Receptor Expression in Peripheral WBCs of Critically Ill Children.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize glucocorticoid receptor expression in peripheral WBCs of critically ill children using flow cytometry. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort. SETTING: A university-affiliated, tertiary PICU. PATIENTS: Fifty-two critically ill children. INTERVENTIONS: Samples collected for measurement of glucocorticoid receptor expression and parallel cortisol levels. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Subjects with cardiovascular failure had significantly lower glucocorticoid receptor expression both in CD4 lymphocytes (mean fluorescence intensity, 522 [354-787] vs 830 [511-1,219]; p = 0.036) and CD8 lymphocytes (mean fluorescence intensity, 686 [350-835] vs 946 [558-1,511]; p = 0.019) compared with subjects without cardiovascular failure. Subjects in the upper 50th percentile of Pediatric Risk of Mortality III scores and organ failure also had significantly lower glucocorticoid receptor expression in CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes. There was no linear correlation between cortisol concentrations and glucocorticoid receptor expression. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that patients with shock and increased severity of illness have lower glucocorticoid receptor expression in CD4 and CD8 lymphocytes. Glucocorticoid receptor expression does not correlate well with cortisol levels. Future studies could focus on studying glucocorticoid receptor expression variability and isoform distribution in the pediatric critically ill population as well as on different strategies to optimize glucocorticoid response.

Adverse drug events in a paediatric intensive care unit: a prospective cohort.

OBJECTIVES: To describe adverse drug events (ADEs) in children under intensive care, identify risk factors and tools that can detect ADEs early, and the impact on length of stay (LOS). DESIGN: A prospective observational study. SETTING: Paediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. PATIENTS: 239 patients with a mean age of 67.5 months representing 1818 days of hospitalisation in intensive care unit. INTERVENTIONS: Active search of charts and electronic patient records using triggers. The statistical analysis involved linear and logistic regression. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The average LOS was 7.6 days. There were 110 proven, probable and possible ADEs in 84 patients (35.1%). We observed 138 instances of triggers. The major classes of drugs associated with events were: antibiotics (n=41), diuretics (n=24), antiseizures (n=23), sedatives and analgesics (n=17) and steroids (n=18). The number of drugs administered was most related to the occurrence of ADEs and also to the LOS (p<0.001). The occurrence of an ADE may result in an increase in the LOS by 1.5 days per event, but this was not statistically significant in this sample. Patients aged less than 48 months also proved to be at a significant risk for ADEs, with an OR of 1.84 (95% CI 1.07 to 3.15, p=0.025). The number of drugs administered also correlated with the number of ADEs (p<0.0001). The chance of having at least one ADE increased linearly as the patient was administered more drugs. CONCLUSIONS: The use of multiple drugs as well as lower patient age favours the occurrence of ADEs. The active search described here provides a systematic approach to this problem.

Isotonic saline solution as maintenance intravenous fluid therapy to prevent acquired hyponatremia in hospitalized children.

OBJECTIVES: This review aims to evaluate if the use of hypotonic saline solutions as maintenance intravenous fluid therapy in hospitalized children increases the risk of hyponatremia, if the administration of isotonic fluids is able to protect against acquired hyponatremia and if the isotonic solutions increase the risks of deleterious effects such as hypernatremia or fluid overload. SOURCES: We researched the relevant literature on the PubMed (Jan 01 1969 to Jul 13 2011), EMBASE (1989 to 2011) and Cochrane Library (1989 to 2011) databases. Furthermore, references of selected studies were included. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: Hospitalized children are potentially at risk of developing hyponatremia and the use of hypotonic saline solutions is the main risk factor for this disease. Isotonic saline solutions have shown a protective effect against hyponatremia, and, so far, there have been no significant deleterious effects such as fluid overload, hypernatremia or phlebitis. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence found indicates that the traditional recommendation of Holliday and Segar to use maintenance fluid therapy for sick and hospitalized children deserves to be reconsidered due to the adverse effects found to arise from it, apart from the better results obtained by using isotonic solutions.

Solução salina isotônica como fluidoterapia de manutenção intravenosa para prevenir hiponatremia adquirida em crianças hospitalizadas / Isotonic saline solution as maintenance intravenous fluid therapy to prevent acquired hyponatremia in hospitalized children

OBJETIVOS: Avaliar se o uso de soluções salinas hipotônicas como fluidoterapia de manutenção em crianças hospitalizadas aumenta o risco de hiponatremia, se a administração de fluidos isotônicos é capaz de proteger contra a hiponatremia adquirida e se as soluções isotônicas aumentam os riscos de efeitos deletérios como hipernatremia ou sobrecarga hídrica. FONTES DOS DADOS: Realizou-se uma pesquisa bibliográfica nas bases de dados PubMed (01/01/1969 a 13/07/2011), Embase (1989 a 2011) e Cochrane Library (1989 a 2011). Adicionalmente, referências foram incluídas dos estudos selecionados. SÍNTESE DOS DADOS: Crianças hospitalizadas têm riscos potenciais para hiponatremia, e o uso de soluções salinas hipotônicas é o principal fator de risco para esse agravo. As soluções salinas isotônicas têm mostrado efeito protetor para hiponatremia e, até o momento, sem efeitos deletérios significativos, como sobrecarga hídrica, hipernatremia ou flebites. CONCLUSÕES: As evidências indicam que a tradicional recomendação de Holliday & Segar quanto à fluidoterapia de manutenção para crianças doentes e hospitalizadas merece ser reconsiderada em virtude das evidências sobre os efeitos adversos dela advindos, assim como dos melhores resultados obtidos com o emprego das soluções isotônicas.

OBJECTIVES: This review aims to evaluate if the use of hypotonic saline solutions as maintenance intravenous fluid therapy in hospitalized children increases the risk of hyponatremia, if the administration of isotonic fluids is able to protect against acquired hyponatremia and if the isotonic solutions increase the risks of deleterious effects such as hypernatremia or fluid overload. SOURCES: We researched the relevant literature on the PubMed (Jan 01 1969 to Jul 13 2011), EMBASE (1989 to 2011) and Cochrane Library (1989 to 2011) databases. Furthermore, references of selected studies were included. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: Hospitalized children are potentially at risk of developing hyponatremia and the use of hypotonic saline solutions is the main risk factor for this disease. Isotonic saline solutions have shown a protective effect against hyponatremia, and, so far, there have been no significant deleterious effects such as fluid overload, hypernatremia or phlebitis. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence found indicates that the traditional recommendation of Holliday and Segar to use maintenance fluid therapy for sick and hospitalized children deserves to be reconsidered due to the adverse effects found to arise from it, apart from the better results obtained by using isotonic solutions.

The impact of daily evaluation and spontaneous breathing test on the duration of pediatric mechanical ventilation: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To assess whether the combination of daily evaluation and use of a spontaneous breathing test could shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation as compared with weaning based on our standard of care. Secondary outcome measures included extubation failure rate and the need for noninvasive ventilation. DESIGN: A prospective, randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Two pediatric intensive care units at university hospitals in Brazil. PATIENTS: The trial involved children between 28 days and 15 yrs of age who were receiving mechanical ventilation for at least 24 hrs. INTERVENTIONS: Patients were randomly assigned to one of two weaning protocols. In the test group, the children underwent a daily evaluation to check readiness for weaning with a spontaneous breathing test with 10 cm H2O pressure support and a positive end-expiratory pressure of 5 cm H2O for 2 hrs. The spontaneous breathing test was repeated the next day for children who failed it. In the control group, weaning was performed according to standard care procedures. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 294 eligible children were randomized, with 155 to the test group and 139 to the control group. The time to extubation was shorter in the test group, where the median mechanical ventilation duration was 3.5 days (95% confidence interval, 3.0 to 4.0) as compared to 4.7 days (95% confidence interval, 4.1 to 5.3) in the control group (p = .0127). This significant reduction in the mechanical ventilation duration for the intervention group was not associated with increased rates of extubation failure or noninvasive ventilation. It represents a 30% reduction in the risk of remaining on mechanical ventilation (hazard ratio: 0.70). CONCLUSIONS: A daily evaluation to check readiness for weaning combined with a spontaneous breathing test reduced the mechanical ventilation duration for children on mechanical ventilation for >24 hrs, without increasing the extubation failure rate or the need for noninvasive ventilation.

Care alternatives for pediatric chronic mechanical ventilation.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of transferring a pediatric population to mechanical ventilator dependency units (MVDUs) or to home mechanical ventilation (HMV) on bed availability in the pediatric intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: This is a longitudinal, retrospective study of hospitalized children who required prolonged mechanical ventilation at the MVDU located at the Hospital Auxiliar de Suzano, a secondary public hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. We calculated the number of days patients spent at MVDU and on HMV, and analyzed their survival rates with Kaplan-Meier estimator. RESULTS: Forty-one patients were admitted to the MVDU in 7.3 years. Median length of stay in this unit was 239 days (interquartile range = 102-479). Of these patients, 22 came from the ICU, where their transfer made available 8,643 bed-days (a mean of 14 new patients per month). HMV of eight patients made 4,022 bed-days available in the hospital in 4 years (a mean of 12 new patients per month in the ICU). Survival rates of patients at home were not significantly different from those observed in hospitalized patients. CONCLUSIONS: A hospital unit for mechanical ventilator-dependent patients and HMV can improve bed availability in ICUs. Survival rates of patients who receive HMV are not significantly different from those of patients who remain hospitalized.

Alternativas de tratamento para pacientes pediátricos em ventilação mecânica crônica / Care alternatives for pediatric chronic mechanical ventilation

OBJETIVO: Determinar o impacto da transferência de uma população pediátrica para unidades de dependentes de ventilação mecânica (UDVMs) ou para ventilação mecânica domiciliar (VMD) na disponibilidade de leitos na unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI) pediátrica. MÉTODOS: Estudo longitudinal retrospectivo de crianças hospitalizadas que necessitavam de VM prolongada na UDVM do Hospital Auxiliar de Suzano, um hospital público secundário do estado de São Paulo. Calculamos o número de dias que os pacientes passaram na UDVM e em VMD e analisamos sua sobrevida com o estimador Kaplan-Meier. RESULTADOS: Quarenta e um pacientes foram admitidos na UDVM em 7,3 anos. A mediana do tempo de internação na unidade foi de 239 dias (amplitude interquartil = 102-479). Desses pacientes, 22 vieram da UTI pediátrica, onde a transferência disponibilizou 8.643 leitos-dia (uma média de 14 novos pacientes por mês). A VMD de oito pacientes disponibilizou 4.022 leitos-dia no hospital em 4 anos (uma média de 12 novos pacientes por mês na UTI). A taxa de sobrevida dos pacientes em casa não foi significativamente diferente daquela verificada nos pacientes hospitalizados. CONCLUSÕES: Uma unidade hospitalar para dependentes de ventilação mecânica e a VMD podem melhorar a disponibilidade de leitos em UTIs. A taxa de sobrevida dos pacientes que recebem VMD não apresentou diferenças significativas em relação à dos pacientes que permanecem hospitalizados.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the impact of transferring a pediatric population to mechanical ventilator dependency units (MVDUs) or to home mechanical ventilation (HMV) on bed availability in the pediatric intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: This is a longitudinal, retrospective study of hospitalized children who required prolonged mechanical ventilation at the MVDU located at the Hospital Auxiliar de Suzano, a secondary public hospital in São Paulo, Brazil. We calculated the number of days patients spent at MVDU and on HMV, and analyzed their survival rates with Kaplan-Meier estimator. RESULTS: Forty-one patients were admitted to the MVDU in 7.3 years. Median length of stay in this unit was 239 days (interquartile range = 102-479). Of these patients, 22 came from the ICU, where their transfer made available 8,643 bed-days (a mean of 14 new patients per month). HMV of eight patients made 4,022 bed-days available in the hospital in 4 years (a mean of 12 new patients per month in the ICU). Survival rates of patients at home were not significantly different from those observed in hospitalized patients. CONCLUSIONS: A hospital unit for mechanical ventilator-dependent patients and HMV can improve bed availability in ICUs. Survival rates of patients who receive HMV are not significantly different from those of patients who remain hospitalized.

Time- and fluid-sensitive resuscitation for hemodynamic support of children in septic shock: barriers to the implementation of the American College of Critical Care Medicine/Pediatric Advanced Life Support Guidelines in a pediatric intensive care unit in a developing world.

OBJECTIVES: To analyze mortality rates of children with severe sepsis and septic shock in relation to time-sensitive fluid resuscitation and treatments received and to define barriers to the implementation of the American College of Critical Care Medicine/Pediatric Advanced Life Support guidelines in a pediatric intensive care unit in a developing country. METHODS: Retrospective chart review and prospective analysis of septic shock treatment in a pediatric intensive care unit of a tertiary care teaching hospital. Ninety patients with severe sepsis or septic shock admitted between July 2002 and June 2003 were included in this study. RESULTS: Of the 90 patients, 83% had septic shock and 17% had severe sepsis; 80 patients had preexisting severe chronic diseases. Patients with septic shock who received less than a 20-mL/kg dose of resuscitation fluid in the first hour of treatment had a mortality rate of 73%, whereas patients who received more than a 40-mL/kg dose in the first hour of treatment had a mortality rate of 33% (P < 0.05). Patients treated less than 30 minutes after diagnosis of severe sepsis and septic shock had a significantly lower mortality rate (40%) than patients treated more than 60 minutes after diagnosis (P < 0.05). Controlling for the risk of mortality, early fluid resuscitation was associated with a 3-fold reduction in the odds of death (odds ratio, 0.33; 95% confidence interval, 0.13-0.85). The most important barriers to achieve adequate severe sepsis and septic shock treatment were lack of adequate vascular access, lack of recognition of early shock, shortage of health care providers, and nonuse of goals and treatment protocols. CONCLUSIONS: The mortality rate was higher for children older than 2 years, for those who received less than 40 mL/kg in the first hour, and for those whose treatment was not initiated in the first 30 minutes after the diagnosis of septic shock. The acknowledgment of existing barriers to a timely fluid administration and the establishment of objectives to overcome these barriers may lead to a more successful implementation of the American College of Critical Care Medicine guidelines and reduced mortality rates for children with septic shock in the developing world.

ACCM/PALS haemodynamic support guidelines for paediatric septic shock: an outcomes comparison with and without monitoring central venous oxygen saturation.

INTRODUCTION: The ACCM/PALS guidelines address early correction of paediatric septic shock using conventional measures. In the evolution of these recommendations, indirect measures of the balance between systemic oxygen delivery and demands using central venous or superior vena cava oxygen saturation (ScvO(2) > or = 70%) in a goal-directed approach have been added. However, while these additional goal-directed endpoints are based on evidence-based adult studies, the extrapolation to the paediatric patient remains unvalidated. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare treatment according to ACCM/PALS guidelines, performed with and without ScvO(2) goal-directed therapy, on the morbidity and mortality rate of children with severe sepsis and septic shock. DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTIONS: Children and adolescents with severe sepsis or fluid-refractory septic shock were randomly assigned to ACCM/PALS with or without ScvO(2) goal-directed resuscitation. MEASUREMENTS: Twenty-eight-day mortality was the primary endpoint. RESULTS: Of the 102 enrolled patients, 51 received ACCM/PALS with ScvO(2) goal-directed therapy and 51 received ACCM/PALS without ScvO(2) goal-directed therapy. ScvO(2) goal-directed therapy resulted in less mortality (28-day mortality 11.8% vs. 39.2%, p=0.002), and fewer new organ dysfunctions (p=0.03). ScvO(2) goal-directed therapy resulted in more crystalloid (28 (20-40) vs. 5 (0-20 ml/kg, p<0.0001), blood transfusion (45.1% vs. 15.7%, p=0.002) and inotropic (29.4% vs. 7.8%, p=0.01) support in the first 6 h. CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the current ACCM/PALS guidelines. Goal-directed therapy using the endpoint of a ScvO(2)> or =70% has a significant and additive impact on the outcome of children and adolescents with septic shock.

Metabolic acidosis in childhood: why, when and how to treat.

OBJECTIVES: To critically discuss the treatment of metabolic acidosis and the main mechanisms of disease associated with this disorder; and to describe controversial aspects related to the risks and benefits of using sodium bicarbonate and other therapies. SOURCES: Review of PubMed/MEDLINE, LILACS and Cochrane Library databases for articles published between 1996 and 2006 using the following keywords: metabolic acidosis, lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, sodium bicarbonate, treatment. Classical publications concerning the topic were also reviewed. The most recent and representative were selected, with emphasis on consensus statements and guidelines. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: There is no evidence of benefits resulting from the use of sodium bicarbonate for the hemodynamic status, clinical outcome, morbidity and mortality in high anion gap metabolic acidosis associated with lactic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Therefore, the routine use of sodium bicarbonate is not indicated. Potential side effects must be taken into consideration. Treating the underlying disease is essential to reverse the process. The efficacy of other alternative therapies has not been demonstrated in large-scale studies. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the known effects of acidemia on the organism in critical situations, a protective role of acidemia in hypoxic cells and the risk of alkalemia secondary to drug interventions are being considered. There is consensus regarding the advantages of alkali and sodium bicarbonate therapy in cases with normal anion gap; however, in the presence of high anion gap acidosis, especially lactic acidosis, diabetic acidosis and cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the use of sodium bicarbonate is not beneficial and has potential adverse effects, limiting its indication. The only points of agreement in the literature refer to the early treatment of the underlying disease and the mechanisms generating metabolic acidemia. Other promising treatment alternatives have been proposed; however, the side effects and absence of controlled studies with pediatric populations translate into lack of evidence to support the routine use of such treatments.

Acidose metabólica na infância: por que, quando e como tratá-la? / Metabolic acidosis in childhood: why, when and how to treat

OBJETIVO: Apresentar uma revisão atualizada e crítica sobre os mecanismos das principais patologias associadas e o tratamento da acidose metabólica, discutindo aspectos controversos quanto aos benefícios e riscos da utilização do bicarbonato de sódio e outras formas de terapia. FONTES DOS DADOS: Revisão da literatura publicada, obtida através de busca eletrônica com as palavras-chave acidose metabólica, acidose láctica, cetoacidose diabética, ressuscitação cardiopulmonar, bicarbonato de sódio e terapêutica nas bases de dados PubMed/MEDLINE, LILACS e Cochrane Library, entre 1996 e 2006, além de publicações clássicas referentes ao tema, sendo selecionadas as mais atuais e representativas, buscando-se consensos e diretrizes. SíNTESE DOS DADOS: A utilização de bicarbonato de sódio não demonstra benefícios no quadro hemodinâmico, evolução clínica, morbidade e mortalidade nos quadros de acidose metabólica de anion gap elevado, relacionados à acidose láctica, cetoacidose diabética e ressuscitação cardiorrespiratória. Assim, a sua utilização rotineira não é indicada. Devem ser considerados os potenciais efeitos colaterais. O tratamento da doença de base é fundamental para reversão do processo. Outras terapias alternativas não demonstram efetividade comprovada em grande escala. CONCLUSÕES: Apesar dos efeitos conhecidos da acidemia em situações críticas no organismo, discute-se o papel protetor da acidemia nas células sob hipoxemia e os riscos da alcalemia secundária à intervenção medicamentosa. Existe consenso na reposição de álcalis e bicarbonato de sódio nos casos de acidose de anion gap normal; entretanto, nos casos de acidose de anion gap elevado, particularmente na acidose láctica, cetoacidose diabética e na ressuscitação cardiorrespiratória, o uso de bicarbonato de sódio não demonstra benefícios, além dos potenciais efeitos adversos, o que torna restrita sua indicação. Apesar da controvérsia, o único ponto concordante refere-se à abordagem...

OBJECTIVES: To critically discuss the treatment of metabolic acidosis and the main mechanisms of disease associated with this disorder; and to describe controversial aspects related to the risks and benefits of using sodium bicarbonate and other therapies. SOURCES: Review of PubMed/MEDLINE, LILACS and Cochrane Library databases for articles published between 1996 and 2006 using the following keywords: metabolic acidosis, lactic acidosis, ketoacidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, sodium bicarbonate, treatment. Classical publications concerning the topic were also reviewed. The most recent and representative were selected, with emphasis on consensus statements and guidelines. SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS: There is no evidence of benefits resulting from the use of sodium bicarbonate for the hemodynamic status, clinical outcome, morbidity and mortality in high anion gap metabolic acidosis associated with lactic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Therefore, the routine use of sodium bicarbonate is not indicated. Potential side effects must be taken into consideration. Treating the underlying disease is essential to reverse the process. The efficacy of other alternative therapies has not been demonstrated in large-scale studies. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the known effects of acidemia on the organism in critical situations, a protective role of acidemia in hypoxic cells and the risk of alkalemia secondary to drug interventions are being considered. There is consensus regarding the advantages of alkali and sodium bicarbonate therapy in cases with normal anion gap; however, in the presence of high anion gap acidosis, especially lactic acidosis, diabetic acidosis and cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the use of sodium bicarbonate is not beneficial and has potential adverse effects, limiting its indication. The only points of agreement in the literature refer to the early treatment of the underlying disease...

Comparison between clinical diagnoses and autopsy findings in a pediatric intensive care unit in São Paulo, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To verify the frequency of discrepancies between clinical diagnoses and autopsy findings in patients from a pediatric intensive care unit and to look for predictive factors of the discrepancies. DESIGN: Prospective evaluation performed between September 1996 and December 1998. SETTING: Eight-bed pediatric intensive care unit of a university hospital. PATIENTS: One hundred and two autopsies. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Disagreements between autopsy and antemortem diagnoses were classified as proposed by Goldman. Patient age, presence of underlying disease, and length of stay were studied as possible predictive factors for diagnosis discrepancies. During the 28 months of study there were 779 admissions to the pediatric intensive care unit; the death rate was 26% and the autopsy rate was 55%. One hundred and two of 114 (89.5%) autopsies were evaluated. The median age of the patients was 21 months, and 85% of them had a previous underlying disease. One third of patients died before 24 hrs of admission to the pediatric intensive care unit. The autopsy revealed unexpected findings in 73 study patients (72%), 33 of which were related to "major diagnoses" (Goldman's classes I or II), either causes of death or main underlying disease. In 12 patients (12%), the correct diagnosis, if known before death, might have led to a change in the patient's therapy or outcome (class I). Unexpected findings in this group included viral or fungal infection and pulmonary embolism. None of the possible predictive factors that we studied showed significant statistical association between clinical and autopsy discrepant diagnoses in the univariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Although diagnoses of both cause of death and underlying disease were accurate in most cases before death, some autopsies revealed findings that would have changed intensive care unit therapy. Nonbacterial infections and pulmonary thromboembolism should always be considered when managing critically ill patients with underlying disease. Autopsy examinations continue to provide important information, especially in the pediatric intensive care unit setting, despite the advances in diagnostic technology.

Absolute and relative adrenal insufficiency in children with septic shock.

OBJECTIVE: Corticosteroid replacement improves outcome in adults with relative adrenal insufficiency and catecholamine-resistant septic shock. We evaluated the relationship of absolute and relative adrenal insufficiency to catecholamine-resistant septic shock in children. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: University hospital pediatric intensive care unit in Brazil. PATIENTS: Fifty-seven children with septic shock. Children with HIV infection, those with a history of adrenal insufficiency, and those submitted to any steroid therapy or etomidate within the week before diagnosis of septic shock were excluded. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A short corticotropin test (250 microg) was performed, and cortisol levels were measured at baseline and 30 and 60 mins posttest. Adrenal insufficiency was defined by a response < or =9 microg/dL. Absolute adrenal insufficiency was further defined by a baseline cortisol <20 microg/dL and relative adrenal insufficiency by a baseline cortisol >20 microg/dL. Absolute adrenal insufficiency was observed in 18% of children, all of whom had catecholamine-resistant shock. Relative adrenal insufficiency was observed in 26% of children, of whom 80% had catecholamine-resistant and 20% had dopamine/dobutamine-responsive shock. All children with fluid-responsive shock had a cortisol response >9 microg/dL. Children with adrenal insufficiency had an increased risk of catecholamine-resistant shock (relative risk, 1.88; 95% confidence interval, 1.26-2.79). However, mortality was independently predicted by chronic illness or multiple organ failure (p < .05), not adrenal insufficiency. CONCLUSIONS: Absolute and relative adrenal insufficiency is common in children with catecholamine-resistant shock and absent in children with fluid-responsive shock. Studies are warranted to determine whether corticosteroid therapy has a survival benefit in children with relative adrenal insufficiency and catecholamine-resistant septic shock.

[Availability of pediatric and neonatal intensive care units in the city of São Paulo]. / Disponibilidade de unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica e neonatal no município de São Paulo.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the health care service provided in pediatric intensive care units in the city of São Paulo, by identifying and describing the units and analyzing their geographic distribution. METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out during a two-year period (August 2000 to July 2002). Data were collected through questionnaires answered by medical directors of each pediatric and neonatal intensive care unit. RESULTS: São Paulo is served by 107 pediatric and neonatal intensive care units, of which 85 (79.4%) completed and returned the questionnaire. We found a very unequal distribution of units as there were more units in places with the least pediatric population. Regarding to pediatric intensive care units specialization, 7% were pediatric, 41.2% were neonatal and 51.7% were mixed (pediatric and neonatal). Regarding hospital funds, 15.3% were associated with philanthropic institutions, 37.6% were private and 47% were public. A total of 1,067 beds were identified, of which 969 were active. The ratio bed/patient aged 0-14 was 1/2,728, varying from 1/604 at health districts-I to 1/6,812 at health districts-III. The units reported an average of 11.7 beds (2 to 60). The neonatal intensive care unit had a median of 16.9 beds per unit and pediatric intensive care units a median of 8.5 beds/unit. CONCLUSION: In São Paulo, we found an uneven distribution of pediatric and neonatal intensive care units among the health districts. There was also an uneven distribution between public and private units, and neonatal and pediatric ones. The current report is the first step in the effort to improve the quality of medical assistance in pediatric and neonatal intensive care units in São Paulo.

Disponibilidade de unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica e neonatal no município de São Paulo / Availability of pediatric and neonatal intensive care units in the city of São Paulo

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar a assistência de saúde prestada em tratamento intensivo pediátrico e neonatal no município de São Paulo através da identificação, descrição e distribuição geográfica das unidades. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo, tipo transversal, onde foram estudadas as unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica e neonatal do município de São Paulo, no período de agosto de 2000 a julho de 2002. A coleta dos dados foi realizada por meio de questionário preenchido pelo coordenador médico de cada unidade. RESULTADOS: Foram listadas 107 unidades de terapia intensiva pediátricas e neonatais no município de São Paulo. Oitenta e cinco (79,4 por cento) unidades forneceram os dados, constituindo a população de estudo. Observou-se maior número de unidades de terapia intensiva em Núcleos Regionais de Saúde com menor população pediátrica. Quanto à faixa etária, 7 por cento eram exclusivamente pediátricas, 41,2 por cento neonatais, e 51,7 por cento mistas. Em relação ao mantenedor: 47 por cento eram públicas, 37,6 por cento privadas, e 15,3 por cento filantrópicas. Identificamos 1.067 leitos, estando 969 em atividade. A razão leito/paciente de 0 a 14 anos foi de 1:2.728, variando de 1:604 (Núcleo Regional de Saúde - I) a 1:6.812 (Núcleo Regional de Saúde - III). O número de leitos por unidade variou de 2 a 60, com média de 11,7 (unidades de terapia intensiva neonatais: 16,9; mistas: 8,5). CONCLUSÃO: No município de São Paulo, observou-se uma distribuição desproporcional das unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica e neonatal entre os cinco Núcleos Regionais de Saúde. Houve também uma distribuição desproporcional entre unidades de terapia intensiva públicas e privadas e entre neonatais e pediátricas. Esse estudo foi o primeiro esforço na busca por melhor qualidade na assistência intensiva pediátrica e neonatal no município de São Paulo.

[Comparison between an upper airway obstruction score and airway endoscopy to detect airway injury associated with endotracheal intubation in children]. / Comparação entre um escore de desconforto e a endoscopia respiratória para detecção de lesões de via aérea associadas à entubação traqueal em crianças.

OBJECTIVE: To compare an upper airway obstruction score vs. airway endoscopy to detect moderate or severe airway injury associated with endotracheal intubation in children. METHODS: Prospective study. Airway endoscopy and clinical evaluation were performed after extubation. Airway injuries identified on endoscopy or according to the upper airway obstruction score were classified as minor, moderate or severe. The obstruction score was assessed in terms of sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values and likelihood ratio to detect moderate or severe injuries. RESULTS: Among 215 patient, endoscopy was normal in 10.2%. Minor lesions were diagnosed in 54.9% of the patients, followed by moderate (24.2%) and severe (10.7%) lesions. In 163 patients with upper airway obstruction, the score classified injuries as minor in 23.3%, moderate in 41.4% and severe in 11.2%. A score > or = 4 had a sensitivity of 73.3% (95% CI: 67.4-79.2) to detect moderate or severe injuries and a specificity of 58.6% (95% CI: 52.0-65.2) to exclude patients without moderate or severe lesions. The positive predictive value of a score > or = 4 was 48.7% (95% CI: 42.0-55.4). In patients with a score < or = 3 the chance of not presenting moderate or severe injuries was 80.4% (95% CI: 75.1-85.7). The probability of a patient with moderate or severe injuries to present a score > or = 4 was 73.3% compared to patients without those injuries (41.4%) (1.8 fold higher). CONCLUSIONS: The score reliably ruled out moderate or severe airway injury in patients with minor upper airway distress. On the other hand, scores > or = 4 presented a low specificity. Clinical evaluation can be useful to rule out patients with minor airway injuries.