Transport of ions in mesoporous carbon electrodes during capacitive deionization of high-salinity solutions.

Desalination of high-salinity solutions has been studied using a novel experimental technique and a theoretical model. Neutron imaging has been employed to visualize lithium ions in mesoporous carbon materials, which are used as electrodes in capacitive deionization (CDI) for water desalination. Experiments were conducted with a flow-through CDI cell designed for neutron imaging and with lithium-6 chloride ((6)LiCl) as the electrolyte. Sequences of neutron images have been obtained at a relatively high concentration of (6)LiCl solution to provide information on the transport of ions within the electrodes. A new model that computes the individual ionic concentration profiles inside mesoporous carbon electrodes has been used to simulate the CDI process. Modifications have also been introduced into the simulation model to calculate results at high electrolyte concentrations. Experimental data and simulation results provide insight into why CDI is not effective for desalination of high ionic-strength solutions. The combination of experimental information, obtained through neutron imaging, with the theoretical model will help in the design of CDI devices, which can improve the process for high ionic-strength solutions.

Scanning surface potential microscopy of spore adhesion on surfaces.

The adhesion of spores of Bacillus anthracis - the cause of anthrax and a likely biological threat - to solid surfaces is an important consideration in cleanup after an accidental or deliberate release. However, because of safety concerns, directly studying B. anthracis spores with advanced instrumentation is problematic. As a first step, we are examining the electrostatic potential of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which is a closely related species that is often used as a simulant to study B. anthracis. Scanning surface potential microscopy (SSPM), also known as Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), was used to investigate the influence of relative humidity (RH) on the surface electrostatic potential of Bt that had adhered to silica, mica, or gold substrates. AFM/SSPM side-by-side images were obtained separately in air, at various values of RH, after an aqueous droplet with spores was applied on each surface and allowed to dry before measurements. In the SSPM images, a negative potential on the surface of the spores was observed compared with that of the substrates. The surface potential decreased as the humidity increased. Spores were unable to adhere to a surface with an extremely negative potential, such as mica.

Mesoporous carbon for capacitive deionization of saline water.

Self-assembled mesoporous carbon (MC) materials have been synthesized and tested for application in capacitive deionization (CDI) of saline water. MC was prepared by self-assembly of a triblock copolymer with hydrogen-bonded chains via a phenolic resin, such as resorcinol or phloroglucinol in acidic conditions, followed by carbonization and, in some cases, activation by KOH. Carbon synthesized in this way was ground into powder, from which activated MC sheets were produced. In a variation of this process, after the reaction of triblock copolymer with resorcinol or phloroglucinol, the gel that was formed was used to coat a graphite plate and then carbonized. The coated graphite plate in this case was not activated and was tested to serve as current collector during the CDI process. The performance of these MC materials was compared to that of carbon aerogel for salt concentrations ranging between 1000 ppm and 35,000 ppm. Resorcinol-based MC removed up to 15.2 mg salt per gram of carbon, while carbon aerogel removed 5.8 mg salt per gram of carbon. Phloroglucinol-based MC-coated graphite exhibited the highest ion removal capacity at 21 mg of salt per gram of carbon for 35,000 ppm salt concentration.

Influence of radioactivity on surface interaction forces.

Although some differences have been observed, the transport behavior of radioactive aerosol particles has often been assumed to be analogous to the behavior of nonradioactive aerosols in dispersion models. However, radioactive particles can become electrostatically charged as a result of the decay process. Theories have been proposed to describe this self-charging phenomenon, which may have a significant effect on how these particles interact with one another and with charged surfaces in the environment. In this study, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was employed to quantify surface forces between a particle and a planar surface and to compare measurements with and without the involvement of radioactivity. The main objective of this work is to assess directly the effects of radioactivity on the surface interactions of radioactive aerosols via the measurement of the adhesion force. The adhesion force between a silicon nitride AFM tip and an activated gold substrate was measured so that any possible effects due to radioactivity could be observed. The adhesion force between the tip and the gold surface increased significantly when the gold substrate (25 mm(2) surface area) was activated to a level of approximately 0.6 mCi. The results of this investigation will prompt further work into the effects of radioactivity in particle-surface interactions.

Electrohydrodynamic Velocity and Pumping Measurements in Water and Alcohols.

Bubble and particle velocities in water and alcohols, under the influence of an electric field, were investigated in this work. Air bubbles were injected into the liquids through an electrified metal capillary insulated by glass with its tip left exposed. The end of the capillary from which the bubbles were released was conical in shape. Due to an electric field formed between the noninsulated capillary tip and a ground electrode immersed in the solvent, small bubbles were formed and used as tracers for the electrohydrodynamic (EHD) flow field. The pressure inside the capillary was measured for all liquids used in this study. For water, ethanol, and n-propanol, it was found that, at relatively low applied voltage, the pressure increases with voltage, reaches a maximum (pressure breakpoint), and then sharply decreases. This behavior is a result of the competition between the electric force appearing at the interface and the force due to the EHD flow near the capillary tip. The electric force tends to increase the pressure inside the capillary, while the EHD flow tends to decrease this pressure. For isopropanol and butanol, the pressure breakpoint was not observed in the range of voltage applied in the experiments. The EHD flow velocity was measured by using microbubbles and particles as flow tracers. An adaptive phase-Doppler velocimeter was employed to measure the velocity of bubbles, while the velocity of particles was measured by trajectory visualization of fluorescent particles. A discrepancy was observed between the two methods because of the location at which the measurements were made. It was found that average velocities of both bubbles and particles increase linearly with applied voltage. Experiments were also conducted to investigate pumping of water, which is a result of the EHD velocity near the capillary tip. The pumping flow rate was linearly related to the applied voltage and agreed well with EHD velocity measurements obtained from particle trajectories. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Shear-Induced Flocculation of Colloidal Particles in Stirred Tanks.

Colloidal polystyrene and paramagnetic particles consisting of mixtures of polystyrene and magnetite are used to experimentally investigate flocculation kinetics in a stirred tank under turbulent shear flow. The effects of various parameters-agitation speed, solution pH, ionic strength, particle size, and particle concentration-on the flocculation rate are investigated. A trajectory model applicable for shear-flow systems is formulated to describe particle flocculation in stirred tanks. The collision efficiency of particles is obtained from the limiting trajectory of one particle moving toward another and is a function of interparticle forces and flow properties. The collision frequency is determined as a function of particle size and energy dissipation. The flocculation frequency is then determined by multiplying the collision frequency by the collision efficiency and is incorporated into a population balance model to predict the particle size evolution. Results suggest that the flocculation rate is enhanced by increasing the agitation speed, even though the collision efficiency is decreased at a higher agitation speed. It is also found that the collision rate increases and the collision efficiency decreases as the particle size ratio is increased. Results also suggest that the breakup rate of aggregates in a turbulent shear flow could be significant and may need to be included in the population balance modeling to correctly predict the evolution of particle size distribution. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.

Mechanism of Particle Flocculation by Magnetic Seeding

Magnetic seeding flocculation of micrometer-sized particles in liquid suspensions is investigated. Primary forces acting on individual particles, including gravity and magnetic attraction, as well as van der Waals, electrostatic, magnetic dipole, and hydrodynamic interparticle forces, are examined and quantified. A mathematical statement of the overall relative velocity is developed from the net force acting on a particle. From this, the equation of relative motion for two particles in cylindrical coordinates is derived. A computer model is then used to solve this equation repeatedly to find the particle trajectory borderline between collision and noncollision, thus determining the collision efficiency and collision frequency. The effects of a variety of parameters on flocculation performance are then explored. It is found that some factors have unexpected and complex influences on the collision efficiency and collision frequency, particularly the particle size ratio and the direction of the magnetic field.