Heavy metal contamination in Sungai Petani, Malaysia: a wastewater-based epidemiology study.

The aim of this study was to investigate the use of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) to estimate heavy metal exposure in Sungai Petani, Malaysia. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to detect copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and cadmium (Cd) in wastewater from eight sewage treatment facilities in Sungai Petani in January 2022. The heavy metal concentrations were measured in both influent and effluent, and the mean concentrations in the wastewater were found to be in the following order: Fe > Ni > Zn > Cd > Cu, with a 100% detection frequency. The results of WBE estimation showed that Fe, Ni, and Zn had the highest estimated per population exposure levels, while Cd had the lowest. Compared to a similar study conducted in Penang, Malaysia, all metals except Cu were found to have higher concentrations in Sungai Petani, even though it is a non-industrial district. These findings highlight the importance of addressing heavy metal contamination in Sungai Petani and implementing effective risk management and prevention strategies.

Relationship of Benzene Concentration, ECR Benzene, Malondialdehyde, Glutathione, and DNA Degeneration in Shoe Industrial Workers in Osowilangun, Indonesia.

In the shoes industry, benzene constitute as one of the source of chemical hazard especially used in the gluing section. This compound is metabolized by the liver, forming free radicals in the body which can ultimately reduce the concentration of glutathione and increased malondialdehyde causing DNA degeneration. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between benzene concentration, excess cancer risk (ECR), malondialdehyde, glutathione, and DNA degeneration among workers in shoes industry in Osowilangun, Surabaya. This is an observational study with a cross-sectional design. The number of research samples was 25 respondents. The average concentration of benzene in workers was above the threshold (10.31 ppm). There were 15 (60%) respondents with ECR >0.0001 who experienced DNA degeneration. There was no relationship between benzene concentration, malondialdehyde, glutathione, and DNA degeneration. However, there was a relationship between benzene ECR, malondialdehyde, glutathione, and DNA degeneration in the shoe industry workers in Osowilangun.

Requirement Prediction for Toluene Detox with Foods Intake Rich in CYP2E1 Enzyme and Glycine to Prevent Nerve and Kidney Damage at Shoe Home Industry Workers in Romokalisari Surabaya.

BACKGROUND: Toluene was an organic compound used in chemical and drug industries, the main source of toluene emissions from fires. To reduce and even eliminate toluene toxins in chemical component could be using detoxification by foods. AIM: This research aimed to calculate the intake of foods rich in CYP2E1 enzyme and glycine to improve toluene detoxification. METHODS: The type of research was a descriptive study. The subject of the study was 51 workers in Romokalisari Surabaya who had worked for more than or equal to 10 years. Variables were body weight, duration of working (years), working time per week (days), and working time per day (hours). The breathing rate, intake of non-carcinogen per respondent, can be calculated by variables before. Then, the effective dose of food rich in CYP2E1 enzyme and glycine will be obtained. RESULTS: Majority respondents had toluene concentrations below the threshold limit value (TLV). The highest effective dose of foods rich in CYP2E1 enzymes such as beef liver, beef brain, and salmon was 239.61 g, 745.45 g, and 203.3 g. Also, foods rich in glycines such as seaweed, tuna, and spinach were 432.98 mg, 934.41 mg, and 2070.71 mg. CONCLUSION: The level of adequacy of the CYP2E1 enzyme and glycine of each person was different and varied. The effective dose required by each respondent depending on weight, length of work, and concentration of benzene in the workplace. The greater the toluene concentration, the greater the needs for foods rich in CYP2E1 enzymes and glycine. Body weight can also be another factor in differences in individual intake. Weight, length of working, and toluene concentration can affect the intake of non-carcinogen in each which can affect the effective dose of foods.

Association between Malondialdehyde and Glutathione (L-gamma-Glutamyl-Cysteinyl-Glycine/GSH) Levels on Workers Exposed to Benzene in Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Chemicals that enter the body, especially benzene, will undergo a detoxification process. Unfortunately, at the detoxification process, sometimes benzene can produce free radicals. Free radical oxidation of lipids produces MDA compounds (malondialdehyde). To overcome these free radicals, the body will adapt to produce Glutathione (GSH) enzymes. AIM: The purpose of this study was to analyse the relationship between benzene concentration, MDA levels and glutathione enzymes in Shoe-Maker Home Industry workers exposed to benzene for more than 10 years. METHODS: Measurement of benzene concentration using a gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (GC-FID). MDA levels used a modified spectrophotometric and GSH method of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test. RESULT: The results showed that the majority of respondents had benzene concentrations still below the TLV value, mean of MDA levels were 6.94 mg/ml, while GSH was 4.54 mg/ml. Benzene concentration did not have a significant correlation with MDA and glutathione levels, whereas MDA levels had a strong correlation with glutathione levels (p = 0.000; r = -0.947). CONCLUSION: Workers should always use PPE and always eat foods that contain lots of glutathione enzymes such as spinach or broccoli to reduce the impact of free radicals from benzene inhalation.

Determination of Highest Dose of Ammonia without Effect at Work Environment through the Expression of Interleukin-2 Cell in Rattus Novergicus.

BACKGROUND: For determining the threshold limit value firstly determined the highest dose of ammonia without effect (NOAEL). However, research on the determination of NOAEL ammonia didn't conduct in Indonesia. AIM: The aim of this study to determine the value of the highest dose of ammonia without effect (No Observed Adverse Effect Level/NOAEL) through interleukin-2 (IL-2) expression on white mice. METHODS: This study used experimental laboratory research with post-test only control group design using white mice as experimental subjects. The treatment group divided into 6 groups (a group of controls and five groups with different ammonia exposure through inhalation). The trend curve of Remmele Scale Index (IRS) and histopathologic analysis could be used for determining NOAEL. RESULT: The location of the highest dose of ammonia without any effect (NOAEL) of white mice was in the second group, with 0.0103 mg/kg body weight dose. Analysis of statistical tests Kruskal Wallis stated there was no significant difference in interleukin-2 expression between the control with ammonia exposed group with a significance of p (0.747) > α (0.05). CONCLUSION: There is no difference between some interleukin-2 expression in the lymphocyte cell lung white mice group exposed to ammonia and control group. The highest dose of ammonia without any effect (NOAEL) on white mice was 0.0103 mg/kg body weight.

Relationship of Benzene Exposure to Trans, Trans-Muconic Acid and Blood Profile of Shoe Workers in Romokalisari Surabaya, Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Benzene is a hazardous ingredient for health. Benzene is used as a latex glue solvent in the shoe industry. AIM: The purpose of the study was to analyse the relationship between benzene exposure with trans, trans-muconic acid (t, t-MA) and the blood profile of shoe workers in Romokalisari Surabaya. METHODS: The study was a cross-sectional design conducted in the shoe industry in Romokalisari Surabaya with some subjects of 20 shoe workers. Data collection was carried out by measuring benzene levels conducted at 8 measurement points in Surabaya Romokalisari, taking workers' blood, measuring body weight and conducting interviews with respondents. Data were analysed using correlation tests. RESULTS: The results showed that there was no relationship between benzene levels with t, t-MA (p-value = 0.205), there was no relationship between benzene Risk Quotient (RQ) and t, t-MA (p-value = 0.271) and there was no relationship between the Excess Cancer Risk (ECR) and blood profile of workers in Romokalisari. However, there were some abnormal blood profile parameters due to exposure to benzene although it was small. CONCLUSIONS: It seems another factors such as length of work, nutritional status, duration of exposure, weight, and frequency of exposure have a considerable contribution in the determination of intake of xenobiotic ingredients in the body to cause health effects especially blood profiles.

The Cost Prediction for Chromium Detox Using Foods Intake Containing Glutathione at the Leather Tanning Industry in Magetan, Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Chromium was an organic compound which was used in metal alloys such as stainless steel, chrome plating, metal ceramics, leather tanning, etc. To reduce and eliminate toxin of chromium from the human body could be using detoxification process, one of them was using foods. AIM: The aim was to calculate the foods intake contain glutathione to improve chromium detoxification and calculate the cost of foods intake. METHOD: The type of research was a descriptive study. The subjects were 10 workers. Inclusion criteria of subjects were workers who had worked for more than or equal to 10 years. Variables were body weight, duration of work, and chromium concentration. After getting all variables above, breathing rate and intake non-carcinogen per respondent can be calculated. Then, the effective dose of foods rich in glutathione and costs of foods will be obtained. RESULTS: The results of this research indicated that the highest cost of foods intake containing glutathione was 5948 idr of broccoli per week and the lowest cost of foods intake was 535 idr of avocado per week. CONCLUSION: Intake of foods containing glutathione (avocado, broccoli, carrot, tomato, and grape) was expected to increase detoxification of chromium. Each individual had a different amount of cost. This depends on the effective dose, chromium concentration, weight, and duration of work per respondent.

Determination of No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level Ammonia in White Mice Through CD4 Expression.

BACKGROUND: Ammonia is one of the chemical compounds that can cause acute and chronic effects to the workers. The purpose of this study is to determine the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) ammonia in white mice. METHODS: This study applied a laboratory experimental with design post test-only control group design using white mice as an object. The process of finding the safe limit began by determining the highest dose and the lowest dose of ammonia without effect in white mice. RESULTS: The latest research showed that the highest dose without effect is 0.0456 mg/kg and the lowest dose without effect is 0.0046 mg/kg. After determining the highest and the lowest dose of ammonia, the researcher started to determine the middle dose. The middle dose is the dose between the highest and the lowest doses with the multiplication of 1.5 starting from the lowest dose (there are 5 middle-dose variations from 5 middle concentration variations), consisting of 0.0872, 0.1309, 0.1963, 0.2944, and 0.4416 mg/m3. CONCLUSION: From the result of the middle dose and the lowest dose without effect, it is found the value of the highest NH3 dose without effect, which showed the highest Index Remmele Scale (IRS) CD4 before the reduction of IRS. The study concludes that the NOAEL of ammonia contained in white mice is 0.0103 mg/kg body weight of the mice.

Risk Analysis Characterization of Benzene and Demographic Factors toward Immunoglobulin A.

BACKGROUND: Research on risk assessment at industrial sites has experienced growth during the end of this year. But in Indonesia, there is still limited research on risk assessment, especially regarding the importance of measuring non-carcinogenic risk assessment in the workplace. Benzene exposure is believed to reduce levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) in workers. AIM: The purpose of this study was to analyse the relationship between risk quotient (RQ) of non-carcinogenic risk assessment of benzene and demographic factors on IgA levels. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The subjects of the study were shoe craftsmen who were at risk of benzene exposure. The study design was cross-sectional with a total population of 20 workers. Measurement of IgA levels by Immunoturbidimetric Assay with a normal standard of 2-3 mg/ml. Calculation of non-carcinogenic (RQ) risk characteristics with a comparison between risk agent non-carcinogenic intake with RfD or RfC benzene. RESULTS: The majority of the study subjects aged over 45 years and had a working period of ≥ 25 years. There were 2 location points that had a threshold value exceeding the benzene standard (> 0.05 ppm), and 40% of the subjects had decreased IgA levels. Age and working periods had a significant relationship to IgA levels (p = 0.027; p = 0.047), while benzene and RQ levels did not have a significant relationship with IgA levels (p = 0.179; p = 0.436). CONCLUSION: Increasing age and working period can reduce IgA levels in the body. Further research is needed on risk assessment, especially on the safe limits of benzene concentration in the workplace to find out how long benzene exposure forms a non-carcinogenic or carcinogenic risk in workers' bodies exposed to benzene.