Population pharmacokinetics and dosing optimization of perampanel in children with epilepsy: A real-world study.

OBJECTIVE: The purposes of this study were to explore the pharmacokinetics of perampanel (PER) in children with epilepsy, identify factors that contribute to pharmacokinetic variations among subjects, evaluate the connection between PER exposure and clinical outcome, and establish an evidence-based approach for tailoring individualized antiepileptic treatment in this specific population. METHODS: In this prospective study, PER plasma concentrations and genetic information on metabolic enzymes were obtained from 194 patients younger than 18 years. The disposition kinetics of PER in pediatric patients following oral dosing were characterized using nonlinear mixed effect models. The effective range for the plasma concentration of PER was determined by assessing the efficacy and safety of PER treatment and analyzing the relationship between drug exposure and clinical response. Monte Carlo simulations were then performed to evaluate and optimize the current dosing regimens. RESULTS: The pharmacokinetic profile of PER was adequately described by a one-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination. Body weight, total bilirubin level, and concomitant oxcarbazepine were found to have significant influences on PER pharmacokinetics. Model estimates of apparent clearance and volume of distribution were .016 ± .009 L/h/kg and 1.47 ± .78 L/kg, respectively. The effective range predicted from plasma concentration data in responders was 215-862 µg/L. Dosing scenarios stratified according to essential covariates were proposed through simulation analysis. SIGNIFICANCE: In this study, we captured the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic characteristics of PER in pediatric epilepsy patients through analysis of real-world data and adopted a pharmacometric approach to support an individualized dosing strategy for PER in this specific population.

How to handle a missed or delayed dose of lacosamide in pediatric patients with epilepsy? a mode-informed individual dosing.

This study aims to investigate the effects on the pharmacokinetic (PK) of lacosamide (LCM), and to guide the individual dosing regimens for children and ones with poor medication adherence. Population PK research was performed based on 164 plasma samples of 113 pediatric patients aged from 1.75 to 14.42 years old. The PK characteristic of LCM was developed by a one-compartment model with first-order elimination. The typical value of apparent clearance (CL) and apparent volume of distribution (Vd) was 1.91 L·h-1 and 56.53 L respectively. In the final model, the variability of CL was significantly associated with the body surface area (BSA) and elevated uric acid (UA) level. In contrast, the impact of some prevalent anti-seizure medicines, such as valproic acid, levetiracetam, oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine, and perampanel, and gene polymorphisms of Cytochrome P450 (CYP)2C19, ATP-binding cassette (ABC)B1, and ABCC2 had no clinical significance on the PK parameters of LCM. BSA-based dosing regimen of LCM was provided according to Monte Carlo simulation approach; while the dosage should reduce half in patients with an UA level of more than 400 µmol·L-1 comparing with an UA level of 100 µmol·L-1. Individualize remedial doses of about 0.5- to 1.5-fold of regular doses were recommended in six common scenarios of missed or delayed doses, that depended on the delayed time. In current study, the population PK model of LCM in children with epilepsy was developed successfully. The BSA-based dosing regimen and individualized remedial strategy were recommended to guarantee the precise administration of LCM.

Lian-Qu formula treats metabolic syndrome via reducing fat synthesis, insulin resistance and inflammation.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a pathological condition characterized by obesity, hyperglycemia, hypertension and hyperlipidemia that increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The traditional Chinese medicine Lian-Qu formula (LQF) is modified from Xiaoxianxiong decoction, which has been used for coronary heart disease or metabolic disease in clinical for a long time. However, the pharmacological mechanism of LQF on MetS is unclear. AIM OF THE STUDY: Here, we explored the actions of LQF on MetS via network pharmacology and validated the mechanism in the MetS mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The chemical components of LQF were searched in the traditional Chinese medicine systems pharmacology database and the natural product activity & species source database. The related targets of MetS disease were gathered from genes cluster with literature profiles database. The protein-protein interaction network was constructed to obtain the key target genes. The Gene Ontology analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment of the key targets were performed to predict the potential mechanisms of LQF action on MetS. And then, the high-fat diet-induced MetS mice were used to validate its therapeutic effect and molecular targets. Insulin tolerance test and oral glucose tolerance test were used to assess insulin sensitivity. Body weight and visceral fat index were measured to assess obesity. Liver metabolism was detected by H&E section, oil red O staining and untargeted lipid metabolomics experiments. Finally, the key targets of LQF action on MetS were verified by PCR and ELISA kits. RESULTS: A total of 466 components in LQF were obtained, among which 71 were active. These components correspond to 74 targets associated with MetS. The predicted targets of LQF worked on MetS were AKT1, INSR, PPARs, FASN, LDLR, TNF, CRP, IL-6, IL-1ß and so on. Furthermore, these targets were related to pathways in cellular response to lipid, inflammatory response, glucose transmembrane transport and insulin resistance. Finally, the animal experiments validated that LQF inhibited lipids accumulation by inhibiting the gene expression of FASN and increasing ADPN, and it relieved insulin resistance by increasing GLUT-4 expression. Moreover, LQF alleviated inflammation by reducing IL-6 and CRP levels. CONCLUSION: LQF exerted anti-MetS effects through improving insulin sensitivity, ameliorating hyperlipidemia and obesity, reducing liver injury, and inhibiting inflammatory response.

Understanding inter-individual variability in pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of aripiprazole in children with tic disorders: Individualized administration based on physiological development and CYP2D6 genotypes.

Objective: This study aims to develop a combined population pharmacokinetic (PPK) model for aripiprazole (ARI) and its main active metabolite dehydroaripiprazole (DARI) in pediatric patients with tic disorders (TD), to investigate the inter-individual variability caused by physiological and genetic factors in pharmacokinetics of ARI and optimize the dosing regimens for pediatric patients. Methods: A prospective PPK research was performed in Chinese children with TD. Totally 84 patients aged 4.83-17.33 years were obtained for the pharmacokinetic analysis. 27 CYP2D6 and ABCB1 gene alleles were detected. Moreover, the clinical efficacy was evaluated according to reduction rate of Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS) score at the 12th week comparing with the baseline. Monte Carlo simulations were used to evaluate and optimize dosing regimens. Results: The PPK model was established to predict the concentrations of ARI and DARI. Body weight and CYP2D6 genotype were the significant covariates affecting the clearance of ARI. The DARI/ARI metabolic ratios (MRs) of AUC24h, Cmin and Cmax at the steady state of results were ultra-rapid metabolizers (UMs) > normal metabolizers (NMs) > intermediated metabolizers (IMs). MRs could be used to distinguish UMs or IMs from other patients. The best predictor of clinical efficacy for TD was the trough concentration of ARI and the cut-off point was 101.636 ng/ml. Conclusion: The pharmacokinetics of ARI and DARI in pediatric TD were significantly influenced by body weight and CYP2D6 genotype. Individualized dosing regimens were recommended for pediatric patients with TD to ensure clinical efficacy.

Population Pharmacokinetics and Dosing Regimen Optimization of Latamoxef in Chinese Children.

The present study aimed to establish population pharmacokinetic models of latamoxef, as well as its R- and S-epimers, and generate findings to guide the individualized administration of latamoxef in pediatric patients. A total of 145 in-hospital children aged 0.08-10.58 years old were included in this study. Three population pharmacokinetic models of latamoxef and its R- and S-epimers were established. The stability and predictive ability of the final models were evaluated by utilizing goodness-of-fit plots, nonparametric bootstrapping, and normalized prediction distribution errors. The final model of total latamoxef was considered as a basis for the dosing regimen. A two-compartment model with first-order elimination best described the pharmacokinetics of total latamoxef. The population typical values of total latamoxef were as follows: central compartment distribution volume (V1) of 4.84 L, peripheral compartment distribution volume (V2) of 16.18 L, clearance (CL) of 1.00 L/h, and inter-compartmental clearance (Q) of 0.97 L/h. Moreover, R-epimer has a higher apparent volume of distribution and lower clearance than S-epimer. Body surface area (BSA) was identified as the most significant covariate to V, CL, and Q. Specific recommendations are given for dosage adjustment in pediatric patients based on BSA. This study highlights that a BSA-normalized dose of latamoxef was required when treating different bacteria to reach the therapeutic target more effectively.

Erratum to: The Role of CARD9 in Metabolic Diseases.

The article "The Role of CARD9 in Metabolic Diseases", written by Cheng TIAN, Ya-li TUO, Yi LU, Chuan-rui XU, Ming XIANG, was originally published electronically on the publisher's internet portal on May 2020 without open access. With the author(s)' decision to opt for Open Choice, the copyright of the article is changed to © The Author(s) 2020 and the article is forthwith distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.The original article has been corrected.

The paradoxical role of methionine enkephalin in tumor responses.

Methionine enkephalin (MENK) is an opioid peptide composed of five amino acids with multiple biological activities. Since its discovery, MENK has become prominent in neuroregulation and immunoregulation. Tumors have increasingly been a spotlight because of their terrible trends and refractory characteristic. The therapeutic potential of MENK was investigated on a large scale, and there are numerous evidences that MENK exerts anti-tumor effects via two mechanisms. The first mechanism explains the enhanced anti-tumor immune effects of MENK. The second mechanism shows that MENK directly inhibits tumor cell proliferation. However, numerous reports have clarified the pro-tumor role of MENK by inhibiting T and B cell proliferation, promoting tumor cell growth by binding to opioid receptors, leading to desensitization of lymphocytes, and inducing tolerance. It is particularly intriguing that dual reactions are triggered when MENK combines with its opioid receptors; thus, anti-tumor response of the whole body is influenced. This review will expound the dual roles of MENK in tumor responses based on immune cells, cytokines, and tumor cells to provide better suggestions for its application in tumor treatment.

The Role of CARD9 in Metabolic Diseases.

Caspase recruitment domain containing protein 9 (CARD9) is an adaptor protein that plays a critical role in pattern recognition receptors (PRRs)-mediated activation of NF-?B and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). This elicits initiation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines and leads to inflammatory responses, which has been recognized as a critical contributor to chronic inflammation. Current researches demonstrate that CARD9 is strongly associated with metabolic diseases, such as obesity, insulin resistance, atherosclerosis and so on. In this review, we summarize CARD9 signaling pathway and the role of CARD9 in metabolic diseases.

Anti-inflammatory and metabolic reprogramming effects of MENK produce antitumor response in CT26 tumor-bearing mice.

Methionine enkephalin (MENK), an endogenous opioid peptide, has a role in nervous system, immune system, and anticancer therapy. Inflammation, metabolism and cancer are closely intertwined with each other. This study is to identify the correlation of the antitumor effects of MENK with systemic inflammation, liver metabolism, and immune cells as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). We established a subcutaneous CT26 colon carcinoma model and a cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressive model subjected to MENK. AML12 and MDSCs were used as in vitro models. The results showed that MENK treatment degraded tumor growth and inhibited proinflammatory cytokines both in tumor tissues and serum. The MENK-treated tumor mice showed normalized liver function with glycolipid metabolic homeostasis. No inhibitory effect on CT26 tumor cell in vitro, but only reduced lipid synthesis in AML12 were presented by MENK. Meanwhile, MENK invigorated immune response in both two animal models by markedly suppressing MDSCs and enhancing T cells response. In vitro MENK-treated MDSCs showed reduced glycolysis and less ROS production, which was mediated by PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone reversed most of the regulation. These results illustrate that MENK preventing development of colon carcinoma might be correlated with the suppression of inflammation, improving metabolism in liver as well as in MDSCs partly through opioid receptor, which brings new elements supporting the adjuvant therapy for tumor by MENK.

Cassiabudanols A and B, Immunostimulative Diterpenoids with a Cassiabudane Carbon Skeleton Featuring a 3-Oxatetracyclo[6.6.1.02,6.010,14]pentadecane Scaffold from Cassia Buds.

Two novel diterpenoids, cassiabudanols A (1) and B (2), were isolated from cassia buds. Their structures were determined by comprehensive spectroscopic analysis and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Compounds 1 and 2 possess an unprecedented 11,14- cyclo-8,14:12,13-di- seco-isoryanodane (cassiabudane) carbon skeleton featuring a unique 3-oxatetracyclo[6.6.1.02,6.010,14]pentadecane bridged system, and their biosynthetic pathways are proposed. Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited significant immunostimulative activity, and the mode of action of 2 involves upregulating CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and downregulating Tregs.

mTOR: A double-edged sword for diabetes.

Diabetes is both a metabolic and an immune disorder. One intriguing link between the two is the serine-threonine protein kinase mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). As a component of the PI3K/Akt pathway and other cellular signals, mTOR is a key regulator of fuel metabolism and function of both pancreatic islet ß cells and immune cells. Consequently, it seems that mTOR has both anti- and prodiabetic effects. On the one hand, activation of mTOR in ß cells can increase their growth and proliferation, opposing impairments of insulin secretion in diabetes. On the other, activation of mTOR signaling in specific immune cells alters their fuel metabolism, amplifying their contributions to ß-cell dysfunction, contributing to the development of diabetes. In this review, we focus on roles of mTOR signaling in pancreatic ß cells and immune cells and their implications in the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetes.

mTOR: A double-edged sword for diabetes.

Diabetes is both a metabolic and an immune disorder. One intriguing link between the two is the serine-threonine protein kinase mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). As a component of the PI3K/Akt pathway and other cellular signals, mTOR is a key regulator of fuel metabolism and function of both pancreatic islet ß cells and immune cells. Consequently, it seems that mTOR has both anti- and prodiabetic effects. On the one hand, activation of mTOR in ß cells can increase their growth and proliferation, opposing impairments of insulin secretion in diabetes. On the other, activation of mTOR signaling in specific immune cells alters their fuel metabolism, amplifying their contributions to ß-cell dysfunction, contributing to the development of diabetes. In this review, we focus on roles of mTOR signaling in pancreatic ß cells and immune cells and their implications in the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetes.

Acceleration of pancreatic tumorigenesis under immunosuppressive microenvironment induced by Reg3g overexpression.

Reg3g is a potential risk for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). We previously demonstrated that Reg3g promoted pancreatic carcinogenesis via a STAT3 signaling pathway in a murine model of chronic pancreatitis. Whether the immune response is involved in tumorigenesis induced by Reg3g remains unknown. In this study, Reg3g-regulated tumor immunity was evaluated in tumor-implanted murine models, immune cells, and tumor microenvironment. In mice that had been orthotopically or ectopically implanted with Panc02 cells, Reg3g overexpression increased EGFR and Ki67, diminished MHC-I and caspase-3 expression, and accelerated growth of tumors. By interacting with PD-1/PD-L1, Reg3g also promoted differentiation of Tregs and recruitment of MDSC, retarded maturation of DCs and inactivation of CD8+ T cells, and suppressed cross-priming of CD8+ T-cell responses by DCs in tumor-bearing mice. Knockdown of Reg3g delayed tumor development in normal mice, but not in CD8+ T-cell-deficient mice. In vitro, Reg3g upregulated EGFR in DCs, activated heme oxygenase-1 (Hmox1) involved JAK2/STAT3 signaling, raised levels of Th2 cytokines in and suppressed maturation of DCs, and enhanced tumor cell proliferation. These results reveal a novel role of Reg3g as an immunosuppressive promoter that weakens tumor-specific antigenicity and suppresses antitumor effects of CD8+ T cells in a murine model of pancreatic cancer. Reg3g produces these effects by activating the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in DCs, triggering the generation of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment.

Immune and Metabolic Regulation Mechanism of Dangguiliuhuang Decoction against Insulin Resistance and Hepatic Steatosis.

Dangguiliuhuang decoction (DGLHD) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula, which mainly consists of angelica, radix rehmanniae, radix rehmanniae praeparata, scutellaria baicalensis, coptis chinensis, astragalus membranaceus, and golden cypress, and used for the treatment of diabetes and some autoimmune diseases. In this study, we explored the potential mechanism of DGLHD against insulin resistance and fatty liver in vivo and in vitro. Our data revealed that DGLHD normalized glucose and insulin level, increased the expression of adiponectin, diminished fat accumulation and lipogenesis, and promoted glucose uptake. Metabolomic analysis also demonstrated that DGLHD decreased isoleucine, adenosine, and cholesterol, increased glutamine levels in liver and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) of ob/ob mice. Importantly, DGLHD promoted the shift of pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory cytokines, suppressed T lymphocytes proliferation, and enhanced regulatory T cells (Tregs) differentiation. DGLHD also inhibited dendritic cells (DCs) maturation, attenuated DCs-stimulated T cells proliferation and secretion of IL-12p70 cytokine from DCs, and promoted the interaction of DCs with Tregs. Further studies indicated that the changed PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and elevated PPAR-γ expression were not only observed with the ameliorated glucose and lipid metabolism in adipocytes and hepatocytes, but also exhibited in DCs and T cells by DGLHD. Collectively, our results suggest that DGLHD exerts anti-insulin resistant and antisteatotic effects by improving abnormal immune and metabolic homeostasis. And DGLHD may be a novel approach to the treatment of obesity-related insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis.

Cinnamomols A and B, Immunostimulative Diterpenoids with a New Carbon Skeleton from the Leaves of Cinnamomum cassia.

Two diterpenoids with an unprecedented diterpene carbon skeleton, cinnamomols A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the leaves of Cinnamomum cassia. 1 and 2 feature a cage-like, rigid, 5/5/5/5/5/6-fused hexacyclic ring system. The structures of 1 and 2 were established by extensive spectroscopic techniques and single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and their plausible biosynthetic pathways were proposed. 1 and 2 exhibited significant in vitro immunostimulative activity, and the mode of action of 1 was investigated.

PID1, a new tumor-promoting gene in insulin resistance mediated acceleration of hepatocellular carcinoma development and progression / 中国药理学与毒理学杂志

OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of phosphotyrosine interaction domain containing 1 (PID1, NYGGF4) on promotion of IR and HCC, and explore its underlying mechanisms. METHODS Lentivirus were used to mediate the knockdown of PID1 in HFD induced IR mouse model as well as ob/ob mice. Intraperitoneal glucose and insulin tolerance were performed 4 weeks after lentivirus injection. Hydrodynamics-based transfection was applied to inducethe liver specific overexpression of PID1. Flow cytometry was exerted to detect the proportion and function of immune cells. qRT-PCR and Western blot were used to detect the expression of downstream pathways of PID1.Immunoprecipitation was used to determine the receptor of PID1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was operated to measure the modification of H3K4me3 of PID1 promoter. RESULTS PID1 restriction improved insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and fatty liver. Conversely, hepatic knockdown of PID1 attenuated liver xenografted tumor growth. Moreover, PID1 liver- specific protooncogenes via hydrodynamics- based transfection established a primary hepatocellular carcinoma mouse model, induced an immunosuppressive environment, with the reduction of CD3 +, CD4 +, CD8 +T cells, retarded maturation of dendritic cells (DCs), pronounced differentiation of regulatory T cells (Tregs), and recruitment of MDSC. In addition, PID1 overexpression activated proliferation related genes, promoted anti- inflammatory genes, suppressed pro-inflammatory genes, induced glycolysis and lipid metabolism genes to facilitate tumorigenesis in liver. Importantly, PID1 exerted its tumor-promoting function through binding to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and activation of downstream MAPK pathway. As such, PID1 exist trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine 4 (H3K4me3) modification and IR up-regulated the expression of PID1 by activation the H3K4me3 modification. CONCLUSION PID1 is a new gene that exerts both liver cancer-promoting and insulin resistance inducing function. IR accelerates liver cancer development and progression partially dependent on the activation of PID1.

Effects of methionine enkephalin on immune enhancement by reducing myeloid derived suppressor cells and reprogramming liver metabolism in colon cancer mice / 中国药理学与毒理学杂志

OBJECTIVE To investigate enhanced immune function of methionine encephalin (MENK) and its anti-tumor mechanism in CT26 colon cancer mouse model. METHODS 3×106 CT26 cells were implanted subcutaneously in BALB/c mice. Four days after, MENK was peritoneally administrated at the concentration of 20 mg·kg-1 for 14 d. The percentage of MDSCs in bone marrow, spleen, blood, tumor and liver were detected by flow cytometry. Non- esterified fatty acid (NEFA), triglycerides (TG) and total cholesterol (T-CHO) in liver homogenate were tested by a NEFA test kit, a TG test kit and a T- CHO test kit respectively. qRT- PCR and Western blot were used to measure mRNA and protein levels of inflammation-, glycometabolsim- and lipometabolsim-associated indexes in liver. RESULTS MENK decreased percentages of MDSCs in bone marrow, spleen, blood and tumor in colon cancer mice. MENK-treated mice displayed elevated ratio of CD4+T and CD8+T cells in spleen as well as increased T and B lymphocytes proliferation. Meanwhile, MENK also ameliorated liver damage reflected by lower levels of GPT and GOT in serum and reduced risks of cancer- associated index including inflammation, high lipid and high glucose. Furthermore, MENK lowered down the levels of NEFA, TG and T- CHO in liver homogenate. MENK treatment decreased expression of p- STAT3, increased expression of p-AKT, IRS1 and Glut4 at protein level as well as reduced lipogenesis-associated genes and elevated glycolysis-associated genes in liver of tumor bearing mice. Also, abated expression of genes associated with MDSCs generation (M-CSF, GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-1β) and migration (S100A9, KC) was observed within shrunken subcutaneous tumor by MENK intervention. CONCLUSION MENK has the ability to strength immune function against colon cancer by reducing MDSCs and improving liver metabolism.

Effects of kinsenoside, a potential immunosuppressive drug for autoimmune hepatitis, on dendritic cells/CD8+ T cells communication in mice.

The central purpose of this study was to investigate therapeutic effects of the botanical derivative, kinsenoside (KD), in experimental autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Treatment with KD substantially reduced hepatic histopathological damage, induced by lymphocyte infiltration and proinflammatory cytokines, in concanavalin A-induced T-cell-mediated hepatitis, and in dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with hepatocellular carcinoma cells (DC/Hepa1-6) induced murine AIH. Interactions between immune cells after KD treatment in AIH were detected by anti-CD8 antibody blocking, CD8+ T cell sorting, and vaccinated mice with KD-pretreated DCs in a DC/Hepa1-6 model. These results showed that KD inhibited the elevated expressions of CD86 and major histocompatibility complex II, densities of chemokine receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 7, and extensive migration to lymph nodes, and increased the programmed death ligand 1 level of DCs, followed by suppressing CD8+ T cells, characterized as low differentiation and cytotoxicity, and eliciting cytokines balance. Furthermore, biochemical analysis, two-dimensional fingerprint screen and three-dimensional molecular docking results showed that KD bound to the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) kinase domain, which inhibited the metabolism-related phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K-AKT) pathway in DCs and DC-modulated CD8+ T cells to lower the mitochondrial membrane potential and glucose/lipid utilization ratio in both cells. KD reversed activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway by 740 Y-P (PI3K agonist), thereby impeding the translocation and dimerization of signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT) 3 and synergistically blocking the inflammation-related Janus kinase (JAK) 2/STAT3 pathway in DCs and DC-modulated T cells. CONCLUSION: KD treatment elicits immunosuppression against autoimmune liver injury by targeting VEGFR2, followed by diminishing the cross-talk of metabolism-related PI3K-AKT and inflammation-related JAK2-STAT3 pathways, and thereby disrupts DC-induced cross-priming of CD8+ T cell responses. (Hepatology 2016;64:2135-2150).