Copper-mediated formation of hydrogen peroxide from the amylin peptide: a novel mechanism for degeneration of islet cells in type-2 diabetes mellitus?

Amyloid deposits derived from the amylin peptide accumulate within pancreatic islet beta-cells in most cases of type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2Dm). Human amylin 'oligomers' are toxic to these cells. Using two different experimental techniques, we found that H(2)O(2) was generated during the aggregation of human amylin into amyloid fibrils. This process was greatly stimulated by Cu(II) ions, and human amylin was retained on a copper affinity column. In contrast, rodent amylin, which is not toxic, failed to generate any H(2)O(2) and did not interact with copper. We conclude that the formation of H(2)O(2) from amylin could contribute to the progressive degeneration of islet cells in T2Dm.

A spectroscopic study of some of the peptidyl radicals formed following hydroxyl radical attack on beta-amyloid and alpha-synuclein.

There is clear evidence implicating oxidative stress in the pathology of many neurodegenerative diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the primary mediators of oxidative stress, and hydrogen peroxide, a key ROS, is generated during aggregation of the amyloid proteins associated with some of these diseases. Hydrogen peroxide is catalytically converted to the aggressive hydroxyl radical in the presence of Fe(II) and Cu(I), which renders amyloidogenic proteins such as beta-amyloid and alpha-synuclein (implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), respectively) vulnerable to self-inflicted hydroxyl radical attack. Here, we report some of the peptide-derived radicals, detected by electron spin resonance spectroscopy employing sodium 3,5-dibromo-4-nitrosobenzenesulfonate as a spin-trap, following hydroxyl radical attack on Abeta(1-40), alpha-synuclein and some other related peptides. Significantly, we found that sufficient hydrogen peroxide was self-generated during the early stages of aggregation of Abeta(1-40) to produce detectable peptidyl radicals, on addition of Fe(II). Our results support the hypothesis that oxidative damage to Abeta (and surrounding molecules) in the brain in AD could be due, at least in part, to the self-generation of ROS. A similar mechanism could operate in PD and some other "protein conformational" disorders.

Hydrogen peroxide is generated during the very early stages of aggregation of the amyloid peptides implicated in Alzheimer disease and familial British dementia.

Alzheimer disease and familial British dementia are neurodegenerative diseases that are characterized by the presence of numerous amyloid plaques in the brain. These lesions contain fibrillar deposits of the beta-amyloid peptide (Abeta) and the British dementia peptide (ABri), respectively. Both peptides are toxic to cells in culture, and there is increasing evidence that early "soluble oligomers" are the toxic entity rather than mature amyloid fibrils. The molecular mechanisms responsible for this toxicity are not clear, but in the case of Abeta, one prominent hypothesis is that the peptide can induce oxidative damage via the formation of hydrogen peroxide. We have developed a reliable method, employing electron spin resonance spectroscopy in conjunction with the spin-trapping technique, to detect any hydrogen peroxide generated during the incubation of Abeta and other amyloidogenic peptides. Here, we monitored levels of hydrogen peroxide accumulation during different stages of aggregation of Abeta-(1-40) and ABri and found that in both cases it was generated as a short "burst" early on in the aggregation process. Ultrastructural studies with both peptides revealed that structures resembling "soluble oligomers" or "protofibrils" were present during this early phase of hydrogen peroxide formation. Mature amyloid fibrils derived from Abeta-(1-40) did not generate hydrogen peroxide. We conclude that hydrogen peroxide formation during the early stages of protein aggregation may be a common mechanism of cell death in these (and possibly other) neurodegenerative diseases.

Both the D-(+) and L-(-) enantiomers of nicotine inhibit Abeta aggregation and cytotoxicity.

The underlying cause of Alzheimer's disease is thought to be the aggregation of monomeric beta-amyloid (Abeta), through a series of toxic oligomers, which forms the mature amyloid fibrils that accumulate at the center of senile plaques. It has been reported that L-(-)-nicotine prevents Abeta aggregation and toxicity, and inhibits senile plaque formation. Previous NMR studies have suggested that this could be due to the specific binding of L-(-)-nicotine to histidine residues (His6, His13, and His14) in the peptide. Here, we have looked at the effects of both of the L-(-) and D-(+) optical enantiomers of nicotine on the aggregation and cytotoxicity of Abeta(1-40). Surprisingly, both enantiomers inhibited aggregation of the peptide and reduced the toxic effects of the peptide on cells. In NMR studies with Abeta(1-40), both enantiomers of nicotine were seen to interact with the three histidine residues. Overall, our data indicate that nicotine can delay Abeta fibril formation and maintain a population of less toxic Abeta species. This effect cannot be due to a highly specific binding interaction between nicotine and Abeta, as previously thought, but could be due instead to weaker, relatively nonspecific binding, or to the antioxidant or metal chelating properties of nicotine. D-(+)-nicotine, being biologically much less active than L-(-)-nicotine, might be a useful therapeutic agent.

Quinacrine acts as an antioxidant and reduces the toxicity of the prion peptide PrP106-126.

The accumulation of protein aggregates in the brain is a central feature of several different neurodegenerative diseases. We have recently shown that Abeta and alpha-synuclein, associated with Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and related disorders, can both induce the formation of hydroxyl radicals following incubation in solution, upon addition of Fe(II). PrP106-126, a model peptide for the study of prion protein-mediated cell death, shares the same property. In this study we show that quinacrine (an anti-malarial drug and inhibitor of prion replication) acts as an effective antioxidant, readily scavenging hydroxyl radicals formed from hydrogen peroxide via the Fenton reaction or generated during incubation of the PrP106-126 peptide. Furthermore, the toxicity of PrP106-126 to cultured cells was significantly inhibited by quinacrine.

Generation of hydrogen peroxide from mutant forms of the prion protein fragment PrP121-231.

By means of electron spin resonance spectroscopy, in conjunction with the spin trapping technique, we have shown previously that Abeta and alpha-synuclein (aggregating proteins that accumulate in the brain in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and related disorders) both induce the formation of hydroxyl radicals following incubation in solution, upon addition of Fe(II). These hydroxyl radicals are apparently formed from hydrogen peroxide, via Fenton's reaction. An N-terminally truncated fragment of the mouse prion protein (termed PrP121-231) is toxic to cerebellar cells in culture, and certain human mutations, responsible for inherited prion disease, enhance this toxicity. Here we report that PrP121-231 containing three such mutations (E200K, D178N, and F198S) also generated hydroxyl radicals, upon addition of Fe(II). The formation of these radicals was blocked by catalase, or by metal chelators, each of which also reduced the toxicity of the PrP121-231 fragments to cultured normal mouse cerebellar cells. Wild-type PrP121-231, full-length cellular PrP, and its homologue doppel did not generate any detectable hydroxyl radicals. We conclude that the additional cytotoxic effects of the mutant forms of PrP121-231 could be due to their ability to generate hydrogen peroxide, by a metal-dependent mechanism. Thus, one effect of these (and possibly other) prion mutations could be production of a particularly toxic form of the prion protein, with an enhanced capacity to induce oxidative damage, neurodegeneration, and cell loss.

Copper-dependent generation of hydrogen peroxide from the toxic prion protein fragment PrP106-126.

Oligomeric forms of many of the aggregating proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases are toxic to cultured cells. We have shown recently that Abeta and alpha-synuclein can both induce the formation of hydroxyl radicals following incubation in solution, upon the addition of Fe(II). Thus, they appear to generate hydrogen peroxide, which is converted to hydroxyl radicals via the Fenton reaction. Here we show that the widely studied toxic peptide fragment of the prion protein, PrP106-126, has exactly the same property, but only in the presence of copper ions. Since the aggregation and toxicity of PrP106-126 have been reported to be critically dependent on copper binding, our data suggest that the published cytotoxic effects of this peptide could also be due to its ability to generate hydrogen peroxide.

Formation of hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals from A(beta) and alpha-synuclein as a possible mechanism of cell death in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

The formation of extracellular or intracellular deposits of amyloid-like protein fibrils is a prominent pathological feature of many different neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). In AD, the beta-amyloid peptide (A(beta)) accumulates mainly extracellularly at the center of senile plaques, whereas, in PD, the alpha-synuclein protein accumulates within neurons inside the Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. We have shown recently that solutions of A(beta) 1-40, A(beta) 1-42, A(beta) 25-35, alpha-synuclein and non-A(beta) component (NAC; residues 61-95 of alpha-synuclein) all liberate hydroxyl radicals upon incubation in vitro followed by the addition of small amounts of Fe(II). These hydroxyl radicals were readily detected by means of electron spin resonance spectroscopy, employing 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide (DMPO) as a spin trapping agent. Hydroxyl radical formation was inhibited by the inclusion of catalase or metal-chelators during A(beta) or alpha-synuclein incubation. Our results suggest that hydrogen peroxide accumulates during the incubation of A(beta) or alpha-synuclein, by a metal-dependent mechanism, and that this is subsequently converted to hydroxyl radicals, on addition of Fe (II), by Fenton's reaction. Consequently, one of the fundamental molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of cell death in AD and PD, and possibly other neurodegenerative or amyloid diseases, could be the direct production of hydrogen peroxide during formation of the abnormal protein aggregates.