Evaluation of a beach volleyball skill instrument for the line shot attack / Avaliação de um instrumento de habilidade de voleibol de praia para o ataque de tiro à linha

ABSTRACT This study aimed to develop a test for measuring athletes' performance. Logical, content, construct, criterion validity, as well as reliability, were examined. Three beach volleyball experts evaluated how well the test evaluates the shot skill accuracy according to their judgment (logical validity). A group of eight beach volleyball experts analyzed the test and rated it on a scale of 1 to 7 regarding the relevance of the content as a measure of beach volleyball athlete's accuracy, the average score was calculated at 6.75 (SD=0.46) (content validity). 60 beach volleyball players divided into three equal groups of novices, intermediates, and experts were asked to undergo the test on two separate days. A one-way ANOVA between the three groups was performed, which indicated that the mean scores of the three groups differed significantly (p<0.001 for both days): experts achieved better scores than intermediates who in turn scored better than novices (construct validity). The athletes' scores were correlated with their proficiency level, using the Pearson Correlation test, which indicated very high positive (Day-1: r=0.956, n=60, p<0.001; Day-2: r=0.953, n=60, p<0.001) (criterion validity). The intraclass correlation coefficient was calculated between Day-1 and Day-2 and was found equal to 0.980 for average measures (p<0.001) and 0.961 for single measures (p<0.001). In conclusion, the requirements for logical, content, construct, criterion validity, and reliability have been met. Therefore, the line shot attack test can be used as a valid and reliable measurement instrument for evaluating the performance of beach volleyball athletes.

RESUMO Este estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver um teste para mensurar o desempenho de atletas. No teste foram examinados os seguintes itens: lógica, conteúdo, construto, validade de critério, bem como confiabilidade. Três especialistas em voleibol de praia avaliaram o quão bem o teste avalia a precisão da habilidade de arremesso de acordo com seu julgamento (validade lógica). Um grupo de oito especialistas em vôlei de praia analisou o teste e o classificou em uma escala de 1 a 7 quanto à relevância do conteúdo como medida de precisão do atleta de vôlei de praia, a pontuação média foi calculada em 6,75 (DP=0,46) (validade de conteúdo). A amostra foi constituída por 60 jogadores de vôlei de praia divididos em três grupos: novatos, intermediários e experientes foram convidados a realizar o teste em dois dias separados. Uma ANOVA de uma via entre os três grupos foi realizada, o que indicou que as pontuações médias dos três grupos diferiram significativamente (p<0,001 para ambos os dias): os especialistas obtiveram melhores pontuações do que os intermediários que, por sua vez, pontuaram melhor do que os novatos (validade de construção). As pontuações dos atletas foram correlacionadas com seu nível de proficiência, usando o teste de correlação de Pearson, indicando correlação muito alta e positiva (Dia-1: r=0,956, n=60, p<0,001; Dia-2: r=0,953, n=60, p<0,001) (validade de critério). O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse foi calculado entre o Dia-1 e o Dia-2 e foi igual a 0,980 para medidas médias (p<0,001) e 0,961 para medidas isoladas (p<0,001). Em conclusão, os requisitos de lógica, conteúdo, construto, validade de critério e confiabilidade foram atendidos. Portanto, o teste de ataque de tiro de linha pode ser usado como um instrumento de medida válido e confiável para avaliar o desempenho de atletas de vôlei de praia.

Construct validation of the Greek version of the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) and Preferences for Activities of Children (PAC).

BACKGROUND: The Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) and the Preferences for Activities of Children (PAC) are 2 measures of children's participation in various activities. The purpose of this study was the validation of the Greek version of "CAPE & PAC." METHODS: The questionnaires were translated and pilot tested on a sample of 25 individuals. The reliability and validity of the questionnaires were tested on 302 individuals (253 typical population, 49 disabled), 6-21 years of age. The construct validity of the instruments was examined the directional hypothesis by comparing known groups with existing differences. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to determine the validity of the typology of activities. The reliability was examined by checking the internal consistency of the instruments. RESULTS: The comparison between divergent groups confirmed the predicted differences of the mean scores and the validity of the instruments. Seven factors (categories of activities) emerged from the factor analysis. The acceptable range of Cronbach alpha for the PAC scale indicated high consistency. CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that partially support the validity and reliability of "CAPE & PAC" instruments to use in Greek population. Further investigation is recommended for both clinical and research purposes.

The effect of implicit and explicit practice in the development of decision making in volleyball serving.

This experiment investigated the effect of explicit, implicit, and sequential learning (implicit-explicit) on the acquisition and retention of decision-making skill in volleyball. The participants were 60 female novices, ages 10 to 12 years. The experimental groups followed three different methods of training: (a) explicit practice for the development of declarative knowledge, (b) implicit practice for the development of the procedural knowledge, (c) sequential practice (implicit first and then explicit), and (d) control group that participated only in the measurements. A pre-test, a post-test, and a retention test measured the response time and accuracy of the decision-making skill. Analysis indicated that all experimental groups improved over time while the control group did not. The sequential group was faster and more accurate than the implicit group, and the latter was faster and more accurate than the explicit one. The sequential group outperformed implicit and explicit groups on both speed and accuracy of decision. It seems that both explicit and implicit processes, when they take place in sequence, interact positively, and this method improves speed and accuracy of decision making rather than when each mode of learning (implicit or explicit) occurs separately. If the role of working memory is reduced at the early stages of learning, the accumulation of declarative knowledge (explicit learning) may benefit from accumulation of procedural knowledge and enhance decision-making skill.

The effect of different corrective feedback methods on the outcome and self confidence of young athletes.

This experiment investigated the effects of three corrective feedback methods, using different combinations of correction, or error cues and positive feedback for learning two badminton skills with different difficulty (forehand clear - low difficulty, backhand clear - high difficulty). Outcome and self-confidence scores were used as dependent variables. The 48 participants were randomly assigned into four groups. Group A received correction cues and positive feedback. Group B received cues on errors of execution. Group C received positive feedback, correction cues and error cues. Group D was the control group. A pre, post and a retention test was conducted. A three way analysis of variance ANOVA (4 groups X 2 task difficulty X 3 measures) with repeated measures on the last factor revealed significant interactions for each depended variable. All the corrective feedback methods groups, increased their outcome scores over time for the easy skill, but only groups A and C for the difficult skill. Groups A and B had significantly better outcome scores than group C and the control group for the easy skill on the retention test. However, for the difficult skill, group C was better than groups A, B and D. The self confidence scores of groups A and C improved over time for the easy skill but not for group B and D. Again, for the difficult skill, only group C improved over time. Finally a regression analysis depicted that the improvement in performance predicted a proportion of the improvement in self confidence for both the easy and the difficult skill. It was concluded that when young athletes are taught skills of different difficulty, different type of instruction, might be more appropriate in order to improve outcome and self confidence. A more integrated approach on teaching will assist coaches or physical education teachers to be more efficient and effective. Key pointsThe type of the skill is a critical factor in determining the effectiveness of the feedback types.Different instructional methods of corrective feedback could have beneficial effects in the outcome and self-confidence of young athletesInstructions focusing on the correct cues or errors increase performance of easy skills.Positive feedback or correction cues increase self-confidence of easy skills but only the combination of error and correction cues increase self confidence and outcome scores of difficult skills.

Modeling in learning two volleyball skills.

The present study was designed to investigate the influence of two different types of modeling and knowledge of performance on acquisition and retention of two volleyball skills (set and serve). Participants were 63 boys and 53 girls in elementary school, whose mean age was 11.7 yr. (SD=.5). The children were randomly assigned into two groups given the same practice method for 16 practice sessions (8 for the set and 8 for the serve) but different types of modeling. Some participants observed a videotape of an expert model performing the skills, and the second group observed a videotaped replay of their own performance. Verbal cues were provided simultaneously with the videotaped demonstration. The first group improved set and serve skills more on acquisition and on the retention test than the second group. This improvement was present when scores and form were evaluated. Modeling plus instructional cues seemed to improve children's learning of two volleyball skills (set and serve), and this procedure is suggested for use by practitioners.

Curriculum enrichment with self-testing activities in development of fundamental movement skills of first-grade children in Greece.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of self-testing activities on the development of fundamental movement skills in first-grade children in Greece. Two groups of children were tested. The Control group (n = 23 children) received the regular 12-wk. physical education school program and the Experimental group (n = 22 children) received a 12-wk. skill-oriented program with an increasing allotment of self-testing activities. The Test of Gross Motor Development was used to assess fundamental movement skills, while the content areas of physical education courses were estimated with an assessment protocol, based on the interval recording system called the Academic Learning Time-Physical Education. A 2 x 2 repeated measures analysis of variance with group as the between factor and testing time (pretest vs posttest) as the repeated-measures factor was performed to assess differences between the two groups. A significant interaction of group with testing time was found for the Test of Gross Motor Development total score, with the Experimental group scoring higher then the Control group. A significant main effect was also found for test but not for group. This study provides evidence supporting the notion that a balanced allotment of the self-testing and game activities beyond the usual curriculum increases the fundamental motor-skill development of children. Also, it stresses the necessity for content and performance standards for the fundamental motor skills in educational programs. Finally, it seems that the Test of Gross Motor Development is a useful tool for the assessment of children's fundamental movement skills.