Radiocarbon Dating of Skeletal Remains: Case Report / 대한법의학회지

While radioactive isotope analysis has proved to be a useful method in disciplines such as archaeology and forensic anthropology, more recently, radiocarbon dating has allowed for a more nuanced biological profile of human skeletal remains. Radiocarbon dating has been made possible by the above ground nuclear bomb test conducted in 1963, which raised the level of atmospheric radiocarbon concentration to almost twice the natural level. Because the annually measured tropospheric ¹⁴C concentrations are integrated into the bomb peak curve, the time of birth and death of an individual can be estimated by comparing the radiocarbon content of a skeletal sample to the bomb-curve value. In July 2017, about 1,000 skeletal remains were excavated at the construction site of Sokcho. For medico-legal purposes, we conducted anthropological and odontological examinations of all the human remains. We then conducted the radiocarbon analysis on seven femora (head and body portions), five mandibular teeth, and soil from the site through a request to the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. The results demonstrated that the estimated year of birth or death was prior to the 1950s. Due to the diverse distribution of results, we deduced that the human remains were from the local mass grave. This study supports and suggests the use of radiocarbon dating more frequently in the analysis of human skeletal remains.

Radiocarbon Dating of Skeletal Remains: Case Report / 대한법의학회지

While radioactive isotope analysis has proved to be a useful method in disciplines such as archaeology and forensic anthropology, more recently, radiocarbon dating has allowed for a more nuanced biological profile of human skeletal remains. Radiocarbon dating has been made possible by the above ground nuclear bomb test conducted in 1963, which raised the level of atmospheric radiocarbon concentration to almost twice the natural level. Because the annually measured tropospheric ¹⁴C concentrations are integrated into the bomb peak curve, the time of birth and death of an individual can be estimated by comparing the radiocarbon content of a skeletal sample to the bomb-curve value. In July 2017, about 1,000 skeletal remains were excavated at the construction site of Sokcho. For medico-legal purposes, we conducted anthropological and odontological examinations of all the human remains. We then conducted the radiocarbon analysis on seven femora (head and body portions), five mandibular teeth, and soil from the site through a request to the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. The results demonstrated that the estimated year of birth or death was prior to the 1950s. Due to the diverse distribution of results, we deduced that the human remains were from the local mass grave. This study supports and suggests the use of radiocarbon dating more frequently in the analysis of human skeletal remains.

Incidence of pterygospinous and pterygoalar bridges in dried skulls of Koreans / 대한해부학회지

Understanding of morphological structures such as the sphenoid spine and pterygoid processes is important during lateral transzygomatic infratemporal fossa approach. In addition, osseous variations such as pterygospinous and pterygoalar bridges are significant in clinical practice because they can produce various neurological disturbances or block the passage of a needle into the trigeminal ganglion through the foramen ovale. Two hundred and eighty-four sides of Korean adult dry skulls were observed to carry out morphometric analysis of the lateral plate of the pterygoid process, to investigate, for the first time among Koreans, the incidence of the pterygospinous and pterygoalar bony bridges, to compare the results with those available for other regional populations, and to discuss their clinical relevance as described on literatures. The mean of maximum widths of the left and right lateral plates of the pterygoid process were 15.99 mm and 16.27 mm, respectively. Also, the mean of maximum heights of the left and right lateral plates were 31.02 mm and 31.01 mm, respectively. The ossified pterygospinous ligament was observed in 51 sides of the skulls (28.0%). Ossification of the pterygospinous ligament was complete in four sides (1.4%). In 47 sides (16.6%), the pterygospinous bridge was incomplete. The ossified pterygoalar ligament was observed in 24 sides of the skulls (8.4%). Ossification was complete in eight sides (2.8%) and incomplete in 16 sides (5.6%). This detailed analysis of the lateral plate of the pterygoid process and related ossification of ligaments can improve the understanding of complex clinical neuralgias associated with this region.

Sex Determination Using Three-dimensional Image of Skull in Korean: Metric Study by Discriminant Function Analysis / 체질인류학회지

Sex determination is considered the first and most important process in the identification of unknown skeletal remains. The skull is one of bones with high accuracy to discriminate sexes, but there is no dimorphic studies of Korean skull by discriminant function analysis. The aim of this study was to build and provide an easy and accurate discriminant equation to sex determination by using three-dimensional skull images of Korean. Computed tomography images from 102 cadavers were reconstructed three-dimensional images by computer program. We measured 44 variables using the template in computer program and variables were sorted out items with high accuracy and reliability by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Cohen's d value, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The equation with the highest accuracy had 82.7% in males, 82.2% in females, it was constituted bizygomatic diameter, cranial base length, biauricular breadth, upper facial breadth, frontal chord, foramen magnum breadth, and right mastoid length. The cross-validated accuracy had 76.5%~86.7% using 3D skull images in Koreans. The value of variables that matches the other population group study, most of variables had a statistically significant difference among population groups. Male skulls in Koreans were smaller than those in European and female skulls were bigger than in Asian. This result should be helpful to determine sex in Koreans.

Validation Study of Discriminating Sex using the Atlas from the Digital Korean 3D Human Body Modeling / 체질인류학회지

Estimation of biological profile for skeletal remains by forensic anthropological examination would be possible based on physical anthropological studies which were statistically analyzed. However, physical anthropological studies for Korean population are not enough to establish biological profile for Korean because there is lack of documented osteological specimens in Korea. Recent study suggested that physical anthropological examination could be possible on the three dimensional data which were reconstructed from computed tomography, instead of preparing skeletal specimen by defleshing bone. One of the aim of this study is to evaluate Digital Korean database which were composed of computed tomographic images of 100 cadavers. The other is to perform statistical analysis on morphometrics for segmented atlas whether the results could be helpful to estimate sex in Korean. We measured 100 segmentation atlases (male 51, female 49) from the Digital Korean database which were under the control of Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, The Catholic University of Korea. Measurements of segmented atlas were carried out by using Mimics software (Simulation module, Version 13.0, Materialise NV, Belgium), and values of measurement were performed statistical analysis by IBM(R) SPSS(R) (version 20.0, Armonk, New York). Among 19 measurements, the width of atlas showed most crucial element for estimating sex, which was consistent with the result using dried bones of atlas and hit ratio of discriminant functions was 88.0%. 76.7 was the cut-off score of discriminant functions. This results showed that morphometrics for segmented atlas could be helpful in estimating sex using the Digital Korean database. In the future, we expect that the other researchers could more actively use the Digital Korean database as a good specimen for physical and forensic anthropological study.

Sex determination using upper limb bones in Korean populations / 대한해부학회지

The purpose of this research is to establish metric standards for the determination of sex from the upper limb bones of Korean. We took a set of eleven measurements on each of 175 right sides of adult skeletons chosen at Korean sample. Classification accuracy dropped only one or two individuals when only vertical head diameter of humerus is used. Variables in relation with maximal length were less accurate than head diameter of humerus. Two variables were selected by the stepwise procedure: maximal length of humerus, vertical head diameter of humerus. The combined accuracy was 87%. This study of modern Korean skeletons underscores the need for population-specific techniques, not only for medicolegal investigations, but also for the study of population affinities and factors affecting bone configurations.

Application of 3D Surface Scanners in Forensic Science and Medicine ( I ): Digital Storage of Human Skeletons and Development of Appraisal Methods for Incident Scenes / 대한법의학회지

The aim of this project was to use 3D scanning data collected at incident scenes and various evidence to 1) develop surveying methods based on 3D data consisting of overall and detailed scene evidence, captured by long-range and micros-canner, which can be shared by personnel working in different fields such as forensic medicine, video analysis, physical analysis, traffic engineering, and fire investigation; 2) create digital storage for human skeletons and set the foundation for virtual anthropology; and 3) improve the credibility of 3D evidence by virtual remodeling and simulation of incident scenes and evidence to provide a basis for advanced and high-tech scientific investigation. Two complete skeletons of male and female were scanned using 3D micro-scanner. Each bone was successfully reproduced and assembled in virtual space. In addition, recreating evidence scheduled for invasive examination by creating RP (rapid prototype) was possible. These outcomes could play an important role in setting up the new field of virtual anthropology. Case-specific surveying methods were developed through analysis of 3D scanning data collected by long-range surface scanners at the scenes of vehicular accidents, falls, shootings, and violent crimes. A technique and recording method was also developed for detecting forged seals by micro-scanning the pressure exerted on the seal. Appraisal methods developed in this project could be utilized to secure 3D data of human skeletal remains and incident scenes, create a standard for application, and increase objectivity, reproducibility, and accuracy of scanning methods. We plan to develop case-specific 3D data analysis techniques to improve the credibility of analysis at the NFS and to establish a 3D data collection and analysis team.

Feasibility of Ultrasound Guided Atlanto-occipital Joint Injection

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility of ultrasound guided atlanto-occipital joint injection. METHOD: Six atlanto-occipital joints of three cadavers were examined. Cadavers were placed in prone position with their head slightly rotated towards the contra-lateral side. The atlanto-occipital joint was initially identified with a longitudinal ultrasound scan at the midline between occipital protuberance and mastoid process. Contrast media 0.5cc was injected into the atlanto-occipital joint using an in-plane needle approach under ultrasound guide. The location of the needle tip and spreading pattern of the contrast was confirmed by fluoroscopic evaluation. RESULTS: After ultrasound guided atlanto-occipital joint injection, spreading of the contrast media into the joint was seen in all the injected joints in the anterior-posterior fluoroscopic view. CONCLUSION: The ultrasound guided atlanto-occipital injection is feasible. The ultrasound guided injection by Doppler examination can provide a safer approach to the atlanto-occipital joint.

Physical Anthropological Study of Excavated Bones from Siheung Cultural Remains / 체질인류학회지

GyeongGi Cultural Foundation was requested the identification of eight excavated human skeletons from Neunggok residential development district within Siheung-si. Those were measured for distinguishing sex, stature, and age at death using metric and non-metric methods. The identification of eight human remains was not easy because the excavated bones were destroyed partly and totally. Six skeletons were excavated from the limed-soiled mixture tomb; five remains among 8 were buried in same grave and 2 skeletons were excavated from the earthen tomb. Four remains were determined female skeletons. One skeleton was assumed adolescence, three skeletons were estimated 40's~50's years old and others couldn't be done. Four among eight remain skeletons, the stature of female remains was around 150~157 cm and male's stature was around 165 cm. Most bones were damaged and destroyed, and the remaining teeth on the maxilla and mandible were not enough for identification. We couldn't identify through metric and non-metric methods. If the human skeletal remains were not found with artifact, those couldn't determine the period. So we couldn't know the relationship between the period of burial and condition of bones. For this reason, we will study the identification using the small and damaged bones. Anthropologists and archeaologists need to work together to make database to determine identification and period.

Estimation of Maximum Tibia Length from Fragmentary Condition in Korean Populations / 체질인류학회지

Long limb bones have been used in the derivation of regression equations for stature assessment. Various papers to estimate stature from long limb bones were existed. However fragmentary long bones are found for analyses in forensic cases, it has impossible to derive regression equations for the estimation of stature from the fragments of these bones. In this reason, this study was tried to estimate maximum long bone length specially tibia as measured nine variables. The sample consisted of 170 tibias (55 males and 30 females). The ages for these specimens ranged between 18 and 91 years. Vernier caliper (Mitutoyo, Tokyo, Japan) and osteometric table (GPM, Swiss) were used to measure variable. Statistical analysis was made using SPSS 15.0 for windows to estimate maximum tibia length. The variables, seemed to higher than 0.5 R-square, were circumference the body that the point found nutrient foramen (CNF) in female and maximum breadth between lateral and medial condyle on the superior aspect (PAB), CNF in combined sex. Also, regression equations were made through the stepwise analysis. The R-squares were 0.499 of male, 0.685 of female and 0.617 of combined sex. In the absence of intact long bones, the equations derived from the present study can provide a reliable estimate of maximum tibia length and can estimate stature after all.

Determination of Sex in Koreans using Atlas / 체질인류학회지

When forensic anthropologists tried to reconstruct the biological profile, they would rely on the statistical data of documented human osteological/anatomical specimens. However, the metric data of Korean ancestry which is suitable for determining sex has not been established because documented human skeletal specimens are lack in Korean. The aim of this study is to discuss the possibility of determination of sex by metric data of atlas in Koreans. We measured 43 (male 25 and female 18) atlas from the department of anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University and the department of anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine. We measured 21 measurements of atlas using digimatic caliper and performed statistic analysis using SPSS to establish the discriminant functions. Among 21 measurements of atlas, the measurement values of the width of atlas exhibited the strongest relation with sexes. The accuracy of arbitrary discriminant functions derived from 6 measurements exhibited 93.9% and that of stepwise discriminant functions derived from 3 measurements exhibited 97.0%. In conclusion, this study could indicate that metric data of atlas is helpful to determine the sex in Koreans, but a further investigation should be followed.

Validation of the Demirjian's Method for Dental Age Estimation in Korean Population / 체질인류학회지

Dental development is valuable for age estimation of children because of its low variability and less affection by endocrine and nutritional status. Demirjian reported a new system of dental age assessment in 1973 and this method has been used in many countries. The accuracy of Demirjian's method in dental age estimation may be affected by ethnic difference. For Korean population, the population study of Demirjian technique has not accomplished yet, therefore, we investigate and analyze the validity of Demirjian's method in Korean population. The 155 orthopantomographys which consisted of 87 boys and 68 girls were randomly selected and the age range was 5 to 16 years. The age of radiography was estimated according to criteria presented by Demirjian. Statistical analysis was preformed between real age and estimated age. In boys, there was no significant difference observed (p=0.171) between the real age and estimated age, however in girls, significant difference was shown (p=0.022) in 95% confidence interval. In both groups, there was clear overestimation tendency below 8.0 year, but over 8.0 year the difference pattern is atypical. The Pearson correlation coefficients between real age and estimated age were 0.970, 0.964 in boys, girls, respectively and showed positive relationship. The standards of dental maturation reported by Demirjian may not be applicable in Korean children especially in girls. Establishment of new maturation scores and percentiles curves for Korean population with many samples is required for more accurate age estimation.

Evaluation of the Rib Seriation Using Analysis of Quantitative Methods in Koreans / 체질인류학회지

Rib seriation has not been used to identify individual human skeletal remains in Koreans. Accurate rib seriation is important for determining rib number and for establishing an individual's age at death. The aim of this study was to use a previously published quantitative method to correctly predict rib sequencing in Koreans. We used complete rib sets of 54 individuals and measured three variables: AFTAL (articular facet of the tubercle-toangle length), HAFL (head-to-articular facet length), and SCTCH (superior costo-transverse crest height). AFTAL and SCTCH were more useful than HAFL for predicting rib seriation, and AFTAL produced the simplest equation for determining sex. In the ranking, the cumulative percentage of AFTAL was 79% with an error of 0, and the range of seriation error was +/-4. Compared to other studies using European measures, AFTAL showed greater accuracy of rib seriation in this study of Korean ribs. In fact, both AFTAL and AFTAL with SCTCH accurately predicted rib 4 in 94% of cases. AFTAL was the most accurate, and use of both SCTCH and AFTAL yielded better results than either alone. Thus, the high accuracy and predictive ability showed that this method is useful for measuring rib seriation in Koreans.

Description of the Surface Findings with Use of the Revised Korean Surface Anatomical Terms / 대한법의학회지

Forensic medicine doctors in NISI(National Institute of Scientific Investigation) have traditionally used handed-down or old anatomical terms when they put into words the external findings of dead body. And we have had no any traditional rule or accepted guide relevant to the description about the surface anatomy, especially in terms of our practice of forensic pathology and medicine. Korean association of anatomists has taken the head to revise the old anatomy terms mostly occupied with the old Japanese and banal Chinese types, and we have come to see the Hangeul anatomy terms. These new Hangeul anatomy terms are now used by younger forensic pathologists, newcomer forensic doctors, and present medical students. Present more experienced and older pathologists, however, still use the old terms. It is, therefore, no wonder that investigators, policemen, attorneys, judges and even laymen coming in contact with our autopsy reports might be confused with the terms expressed in that official and publicly trusted documents. We felt that it is time for appropriate guideline about describing the surface anatomy to emerge with the viewpoint of forensic medicine. So we explained and depicted what to designate the region which an external finding lies in and how to use the surface anatomy terms.

Blunt Force Injuries in a Drowning Victim / 대한법의학회지

A 31-year-old man was found dead in the sea. The victim had blunt force injuries including multiple rib fractures and traumatic rupture of internal organs. It was suspected that the drowning body was thrown into the sea after being killed. However, police officers found the victim's car on a 30 meters-height bridge over the sea. His shoes and clothes were well arranged in the car. He had some bad debt losses. The case was closed as a suicidal fall into the sea. To determine the appropriate manner of death, adequate background and scene investigations as well as autopsy findings should be required.

Estimation of Maximum Femoral Length from Fragmentary Femur / 체질인류학회지

Positive identification of human body remains is one of the most important tasks in mass disaster management. In general, anthropometric studies of long bones help to take informations such as race, gender, age, and stature of an individual. The previous reports estimated the stature from the femur length or from its fragments. One hundred ninety five (male 120, female 75) human bodies were examined. We measured 11 items which related breadth and length of femur. The highest correlation coefficients showed in the distance from most proximal point of intercondylar fossa to midpoint of lesser trochanter (IFLM) and distance from most proximal point of intercondylar fossa to most proximal point of greater trochanter (IFGP). The regression formulae were obtained from the various measurement of the fragmentary femur. With known values, the expected maximum femoral length was as follows. When using IFLM, maximum femoral length (male) = 21.788+/-1.278*IFLM+/-9.714 maximum femoral length (female) = 33.892+/-1.224*IFLM+/-11.311 maximum femoral length (combined) = 10.201+/-1.310*IFLM+/-6.746 When using IFGP, maximum femoral length (male) = 1.162*IFGP-8.770+/-8.882 maximum femoral length (female) = 1.117*IFGP+/-7.265+/-13.604 maximum femoral length (combined) = 1.149*IFGP-3.860+/-5.827 Consequently, these formulae are useful to persume the maximal length of femur for the unidentified fragments of femur in Korean.

Three Dimensional Characteristics of Mandible in Class II Malocclusion Cases Using Computed Tomography / 체질인류학회지

In case of class II malocclusion, mandible has morphological characteristics such as size and position. To investigate morphological characteristics of mandible, most study has been done in indirect measurement using cephalogram. Recently, it is possible to measure directly Three dimensional skeletal model reconstructed from computed tomography images. This study aimed to know characteristics of mandible in class II malocclusion, analyzing Three dimensional mandible models of class I and II malocclusion which are acquired from computed tomography images of 80 cadavers. In open bite type of class II malocclusion, the size of mandible had no difference from class I malocclusion but the sagittal ramus angle and condylar angle were smaller 3 degree than class I. These findings inform that the ramus and condylar process of open bite type of class II malocclusion stand more erectly than class I and then the mandible is placed posteriorly. In deep bite type of class II malocclusion, the length of mandible was shorter 4 mm and, the sagittal ramus angle and condylar angle were larger 5 degree than class I. These findings, short length of mandible and more lying ramus and condylar process, make the mandible in the feature of deep bite of class II malocclusion. In comparison of past issued articles which used cehpalometry mainly, the values of measurements agree partially. It is the differences of measuring points and methods to make inconsistency between indirect measurement like cephalometric study and 3 dimensionally direct measurement like this study. To increase accuracy of Three dimensionally direct measurement, standardization of measuring points and method for the measurement is required.

Medicolegal and Anthropological Investigations on Tattoo Marks in Korean / 대한법의학회지

Tattoo involves puncturing the skin with a sharp instrument and inserting pigment through the epidermis into the dermis. People around the world have been tattooing their bodies for ages. As widely recognized, tattoo marks are found on Egyptian and Nubian mummies dating from about 2000 B.C. The culture of tattooing has had diverse meanings in different cultures. It may include cosmetic, religious and magical origins and identification of a social class. In Korea, there was a record of tattooing on forearm as a commitment to the thieves in Korea dynasty (918-1392). From a medicolegal perspective, tattoos are often used as identification markers in unknown human bodies, and have been associated with several risk factors for lethality from both suicide and accidental death. In this article, we investigated tattoo marks among the 665 autopsies performed in the Southern division of National Institute of Scientific Investigation between August 2001 and December 2002.

Morphometric Analysis of the Korean Thyroid Cartilage for Identification of Sex : Metric Study / 체질인류학회지

The thyroid cartilage is located just below the hyoid bone and is the biggest cartilage in laryngeal cartilage. The purpose of this study is to identify the sex based on the morphological analysis of the thyroid cartilage of Koreans. This study was carried out on the thyroid cartilage of 109 specimens of adult subjects (age over twenty years old) including 69 males and 40 females. We measured 27 measurements, followed by the statistic procedures. The results were as followed ; 1. Male subjects exhibited larger values of width, height and length of the thyroid cartilage and height of lamina than female subjects (p < 0.01). 2. Female subjects exhibited larger values of angle of lamina, angle of inferior horn and angle of upper margin of lamina than male subjects (p < 0.01). 3. Discriminant functions were obtained with the measurement values of length of the thyroid cartilage and height of lamina. In conclusion, the thyroid cartilage in Korean is different depending on sexes. Therefore we can identify the sex for over twenty years old Koreans by the morphometric analysis of the thyroid cartilage.

Morphologic Study of the Rectus Abdominis Muscle for Flap Surgery / 체질인류학회지

Forty-nine cadaver dissections (male 30, female 19) were performed to identify the shape and size of rectus abdominis muscle and the distribution of vessels in Korean for flap surgery. The total length between xiphoid process and pubic symphysis of male is 375.9+/-41.8 mm and female is 339.4+/-39.1 mm. But the length between umbilicus and pubic symphysis of male and female did not show significant difference. The three tendinous intersections are 61.2%, the 4 intersections are 35.7%, and 2 intersections are 3.1%. The most of first, second and third intersections had the most complete intersection. The most of fourth intersection had the most fragmentary intersection. The external diameter of superior epigastric artery is 1.4+/-0.3 mm, and inferior epigastric artery is 2.6+/-0.6 mm. The percentage of superior epigastric artery that goes into the medial 1/3 region of rectus abdominis muscle is 52%, middle 1/3 region is 38%, lateral 1/3 region is 2% and 2 stem goes into the muscle is 8%. The length between the origin of inferior epigastric artery and the point of semilunar line met inferior epigastric artery is 41.1 mm in male and 38.8 mm in female.