'Ripple effects' of urban environmental characteristics on cognitive performances in Eurasian red squirrels.

Urban areas are expanding exponentially, leading more species of wildlife living in urban environments. Urban environmental characteristics, such as human disturbance, induce stress for many wildlife and have been shown to affect some cognitive traits, such as innovative problem-solving performance. However, because different cognitive traits have common cognitive processes, it is possible that urban environmental characteristics may directly and indirectly affect related cognitive traits (the ripple effect hypothesis). We tested the ripple effect hypothesis in urban Eurasian red squirrels residing in 11 urban areas that had different urban environmental characteristics (direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance, areas of green coverage and squirrel population size). These squirrels were innovators who had previously repeatedly solved a food extraction task (the original task). Here, we examined whether and how urban environmental characteristics would directly and indirectly influence performance in two related cognitive traits, generalisation and (long-term) memory. The generalisation task required the innovators to apply the learned successful solutions when solving a similar but novel problem. The memory task required them to recall the learned solution of the original task after an extended period of time. Some of the selected urban environmental characteristics directly influenced the task performance, both at the population level (site) and at individual levels. Urban environmental characteristics, such as increased direct and indirect human disturbance, decreased the proportion of success in solving the generalisation task or the memory task at the population (site) level. Increased direct human disturbance and less green coverage increased the solving efficiency at individual levels. We also found an indirect effect in one of the urban environmental characteristics, indirect human disturbance, in the generalisation task, but not the memory task. Such an effect was only seen at the individual level but not at the population level; indirect human disturbance decreased the first original latency, which then decreased the generalisation latency across successes. Our results partially support the ripple effect hypothesis, suggesting that urban environmental characteristics are stressors for squirrels and have a greater impact on shaping cognitive performance than previously shown. Together, these results provide a better understanding of cognitive traits that support wildlife in adapting to urban environments.

Investigation of the possibility of using an augmented reality-based endotracheal aspiration simulation tool for nursing education.

AIM: We developed an augmented reality technology-based endotracheal aspiration simulation tool (the AR tool) consisting of three modes: a mode for nursing students to learn endotracheal aspiration by themselves (learning mode); a mode for repeated practice (practice mode); and a mode for confirmation testing (test mode). This study aimed to compare the learning outcomes of the AR tool with traditional training mannequins and identify potential uses and improvements of the AR tool. METHODS: We invited students, and faculty members from the three universities who agreed to cooperate in conducting this study. Fifty-four students and nine faculty members agreed to participate in this study. The students were divided into two groups. One group was to study with the AR tool and the other group was to study with the traditional half-body training mannequin for suction. The students in both groups were asked to demonstrate endotracheal aspiration on another full-body type training mannequin which could be used as a patient with a tracheostomy (Skill test). Group interviews with faculty members focused on the topic of the AR tool's potential use in nursing education and improvement needed. RESULTS: There was little significant difference in the skill test results of endotracheal aspiration of students in both groups. The students and faculty members both expressed an interest in the AR tool. They said it was suitable for self-study of endotracheal aspiration. CONCLUSIONS: This AR tool is an effective teaching tool for learning the sequence of endotracheal suctioning, although there are some areas that need improvement.

Managing wildlife tolerance to humans for ecosystem goods and services.

Many animals can vary their behaviors to better utilize anthropogenic environments. Wildlife living in highly disturbed environments often show an increased tolerance towards humans. While animal behavior can play a vital role in producing and delivering ecosystem services, we know less about how variation in wildlife tolerance to humans can influence ecosystem services. Increased tolerance to humans changes a variety of animal behaviors, and these behavioral modifications, such as changes to foraging, habitat selection, and movement, can alter the supply and flow of both ecosystem services and disservices. We highlight the need to understand the links between increased tolerance to humans and ecosystem services to develop an effective tool to enhance services while minimizing the risk of creating disservices.

Novel prediction models for pharyngeal-airway volume based on the cranial-base and midsagittal cross-sectional area of the airway in the pharyngeal region: A cephalometric and magnetic resonance imaging study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to elucidate the association between cranial base (Bjork-Jarabak analysis), midsagittal cross-sectional area of the airway in the pharyngeal region (MCSA-PR) data and pharyngeal-airway volume (PAV) and develop a model that could help clinicians predict PAV using two-dimensional (2D) data (Bjork polygon and MCSA-PR). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Pre-treatment lateral cephalometric radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of 82 women were categorized into three anteroposterior skeletal groups based on ANB angle: Class I (n = 29), 1.5° ≤ ANB≤5.1°; Class II (n = 26), ANB >5.1°; Class III (n = 27), ANB <1.5°. The Bjork polygon, MCSA-PR data from cephalograms and PAV data from MRI scans were examined. Intergroup comparisons were performed using the Kruskal-Wallis test and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with pairwise comparisons conducted using the Bonferroni-corrected Mann-Whitney U-test for the Kruskal-Wallis test and Bonferroni-corrected multiple comparison test for one-way ANOVA. Forward multiple linear regression was used to create model equations for predicting PAV. RESULTS: MCSA-PR and anterior (N-S) and posterior (S-Ar) cranial-base lengths were positively correlated with the PAV. We developed four models; three operated at the group level, and one encompassed the entire sample. Notably, all models could effectively explain the variance in the PAV data. The model for the Class I group was the strongest (adjusted R2 = 0.77). CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate the remarkable potential of the MCSA-PR, N-S and Bjork sum angles (BSA) as predictors of the PAV and the relevance of 2D cephalometric and cranial-base parameters in predicting the three-dimensional (3D) pharyngeal-airway size.

Open-Shell Germylene Stabilized by a Phenalenyl-Based Ligand.

An open-shell germylene 1 stabilized by a phenalenyl-based bidentate ligand was synthesized and characterized. Because of the high thermal stability originating from spin delocalization over the phenalenyl moiety, it was possible to isolate compound 1 in crystalline form by sublimation at ca. 300 °C. Electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra, crystallographic analysis, theoretical calculations, and reactivities with carbon radicals suggest that the spin of 1 is distributed on the phenalenyl moiety, while 1 reacted with C2Cl6, PhSSPh, and p-benzoquinone at the germanium center to form Ge-E (E = Cl, S, O) bonds. Furthermore, compound 1 is featured by its reactivity as a "formal germylyne", which allows for the formation of three new σ-bonds or one σ-bond with metal complexation on the germanium center.

The benefits of being dominant: health correlates of male social rank and age in a marmot.

The benefits of dominance may not come without costs, particularly for males. For example, the "immunocompetence handicap hypothesis" states that males with enhanced mating success allocate resources to enhance reproductive output at a cost to their current health, whereas the "resource quality hypothesis" predicts that high-ranking males may benefit from increased reproduction and good health. Whereas the predictions from each have been well tested in captive animals and in a variety of highly social primates, fewer studies have been carried out in free-living, facultatively social animals. Using adult male yellow-bellied marmots (Marmota flaviventer), we evaluated predictions of these hypotheses by examining the relationship between social rank and 2 health indicators-fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FCM) levels, and neutrophil/lymphocyte (N/L) ratios-after accounting for variation explained by age, body mass, and seasonality. We found that higher-ranking males tended to have a lower N/L ratio (reflecting good health) than lower-ranking individuals, whereas FCM levels were not significantly related to rank. In addition, heavier male marmots had lower N/L ratios, whereas body mass was not associated with FCM levels. We also found that older adult males had lower FCM levels (reflecting less physiological stress) but higher N/L ratios than younger adults. Finally, we found that FCM levels decreased as the active season progressed and FCM levels were associated with the time of the day. Overall, our results suggest that socially-dominant male marmots enjoyed better, not worse health in terms of lower N/L ratios.

Synthesis and Characterization of 1-Hydroxy-4,5-arene-Fused Tropylium Derivatives.

The properties of 1-hydroxy-4,5-arene-fused tropyliums were assessed based on experimental and theoretical investigations. An X-ray crystallographic analysis revealed a decrease of bond alternation in the seven-membered ring of 1-hydroxy-4,5-benzotropylium derivatives compared with that of the parent 4,5-benzotropones, which is indicative of an increase in aromaticity upon protonation. NICS and AICD calculations also supported the increased aromaticity of 1-hydroxy-4,5-arene-fused tropylium. The pKa values for a series of 1-hydroxy-4,5-arene-fused tropylium derivatives were also determined.

Characteristics of urban environments and novel problem-solving performance in Eurasian red squirrels.

Urban environments can be deemed 'harsh' for some wildlife species, but individuals frequently show behavioural flexibility to cope with challenges and demands posed by life in the city. For example, urban animals often show better performance in solving novel problems than rural conspecifics, which helps when using novel resources under human-modified environments. However, which characteristics of urban environments fine-tune novel problem-solving performance, and their relative importance, remain unclear. Here, we examined how four urban environmental characteristics (direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance, size of green coverage and squirrel population size) may potentially influence novel problem-solving performance of a successful 'urban dweller', the Eurasian red squirrel, by presenting them with a novel food-extraction problem. We found that increased direct human disturbance, indirect human disturbance and a higher squirrel population size decreased the proportion of solving success at the population level. At the individual level, an increase in squirrel population size decreased the latency to successfully solve the novel problem the first time. More importantly, increased direct human disturbance, squirrel population size and experience with the novel problem decreased problem-solving time over time. These findings highlight that some urban environmental characteristics shape two phenotypic extremes in the behaviour-flexibility spectrum: individuals either demonstrated enhanced learning or they failed to solve the novel problem.

Urban Biodiversity and the Importance of Scale.

Many ecological and evolutionary processes are affected by urbanization, but cities vary by orders of magnitude in their human population size and areal extent. To quantify and manage urban biodiversity, one must understand both how biodiversity scales with city size, and how ecological, evolutionary, and socioeconomic drivers of biodiversity scale with city size. We show how environmental abiotic and biotic drivers, as well as human cultural and socioeconomic drivers, may act through ecological and evolutionary processes differently, at different scales, to influence patterns in urban biodiversity. Because relationships likely take linear and nonlinear forms, the need to describe the specific scaling relationships is highlighted, including deviations and potential inflection points, where different management strategies may successfully conserve urban biodiversity.

Comparison of the intestinal helminth community of the large Japanese field mouse (Apodemus speciosus) between urban, rural, and natural sites in Hokkaido, Japan.

Anthropogenic ecosystem modification has affected over 80% of the global land cover. Interest in its effects on wildlife has been growing over the past several decades, specifically in regard to biodiversity and ecosystem function. Parasites are of particular interest, because they directly impact animal health, and can be transmitted to humans through the process of zoonosis. However, most studies so far tended to focus on only one or two parasites with few looking at the entire community, thereby limiting our understanding of the effects of ecosystem modification on parasitic organisms. In this study, we estimated the intestinal helminth diversity and species richness of the large Japanese field mouse (Apodemus speciosus), as well as the prevalence and abundance of each species in two modified ecosystems, a rural agricultural area and an urban park. We then compared them to a natural area to see how they have been altered. We found that diversity, prevalence, and abundance were all highly altered within both modified ecosystems, but generally to a greater degree within the urban park. However, there was great variation in the direction and degree of response of each helminth species, suggesting that generalized trends may be difficult to ascertain. Furthermore, it is important to analyze the entire helminth community, because interspecific interactions and the effect that ecosystem modification has on them may help determine what species persist.

Seasonal and Diel Activity Patterns of Eight Sympatric Mammals in Northern Japan Revealed by an Intensive Camera-Trap Survey.

The activity patterns of mammals are generally categorized as nocturnal, diurnal, crepuscular (active at twilight), and cathemeral (active throughout the day). These patterns are highly variable across regions and seasons even within the same species. However, quantitative data is still lacking, particularly for sympatric species. We monitored the seasonal and diel activity patterns of terrestrial mammals in Hokkaido, Japan. Through an intensive camera-trap survey a total of 13,279 capture events were recorded from eight mammals over 20,344 camera-trap days, i.e., two years. Diel activity patterns were clearly divided into four categories: diurnal (Eurasian red squirrels), nocturnal (raccoon dogs and raccoons), crepuscular (sika deer and mountain hares), and cathemeral (Japanese martens, red foxes, and brown bears). Some crepuscular and cathemeral mammals shifted activity peaks across seasons. Particularly, sika deer changed peaks from twilight during spring-autumn to day-time in winter, possibly because of thermal constraints. Japanese martens were cathemeral during winter-summer, but nocturnal in autumn. We found no clear indication of predator-prey and competitive interactions, suggesting that animal densities are not very high or temporal niche partitioning is absent among the target species. This long-term camera-trap survey was highly cost-effective and provided one of the most detailed seasonal and diel activity patterns in multiple sympatric mammals under natural conditions.

Polymer-Particle Pressure-Sensitive Paint with High Photostability.

We propose a novel fast-responding and paintable pressure-sensitive paint (PSP) based on polymer particles, i.e. polymer-particle (pp-)PSP. As a fast-responding PSP, polymer-ceramic (PC-)PSP is widely studied. Since PC-PSP generally consists of titanium (IV) oxide (TiO2) particles, a large reduction in the luminescent intensity will occur due to the photocatalytic action of TiO2. We propose the usage of polymer particles instead of TiO2 particles to prevent the reduction in the luminescent intensity. Here, we fabricate pp-PSP based on the polystyrene particle with a diameter of 1 µm, and investigate the pressure- and temperature-sensitives, the response time, and the photostability. The performances of pp-PSP are compared with those of PC-PSP, indicating the high photostability with the other characteristics comparable to PC-PSP.

Ruthenium-catalyzed regio- and enantioselective allylic amination of racemic 1-arylallyl esters.

The regio- and enantioselective allylic amination of racemic monosubstituted allylic esters, such as 1-arylallyl acetates, with cyclic secondary amines has been accomplished. The RuCl3/(S,S)-ip-pybox catalyst system has effectively catalyzed the reaction to afford the enantiomerically enriched branch-type allylic amines with perfect regioselectivity and high enantioselectivity.