27-Hydroxycholesterol Promotes Adiposity and Mimics Adipogenic Diet-Induced Inflammatory Signaling.

27-Hydroxycholesterol (27HC) is an abundant cholesterol metabolite and has detrimental effects on the cardiovascular system, whereas its impact on adiposity is not well known. In this study, we found that elevations in 27HC cause increased body weight gain in mice fed a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet in an estrogen receptor α-dependent manner. Regardless of diet type, body fat mass was increased by 27HC without changes in food intake or fat absorption. 27HC did not alter energy expenditure in mice fed a normal chow diet and increased visceral white adipose mass by inducing hyperplasia but not hypertrophy. Although 27HC did not augment adipocyte terminal differentiation, it increased the adipose cell population that differentiates to mature adipocytes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that 27HC treatment of mice fed a normal chow diet induces inflammatory gene sets similar to those seen after high-fat/high-cholesterol diet feeding, whereas there was no overlap in inflammatory gene expression among any other 27HC administration/diet change combination. Histological analysis showed that 27HC treatment increased the number of total and M1-type macrophages in white adipose tissues. Thus, 27HC promotes adiposity by directly affecting white adipose tissues and by increasing adipose inflammatory responses. Lowering serum 27HC levels may lead to an approach targeting cholesterol to prevent diet-induced obesity.

Nonnuclear Estrogen Receptor Activation Improves Hepatic Steatosis in Female Mice.

Estrogens have the potential to afford atheroprotection, to prevent excess adiposity and its metabolic complications including insulin resistance, and to lessen hepatic steatosis. Cellular responses to estrogens occur through gene regulation by nuclear estrogen receptors (ERs), and through signal initiation by plasma membrane-associated ER. Leveraging the potentially favorable cardiometabolic actions of estrogens has been challenging, because their reproductive tract and cancer-promoting effects adversely impact the risk to benefit ratio of the therapy. In previous works, we discovered that an estrogen dendrimer conjugate (EDC) comprised of ethinyl-estradiol (E2) molecules linked to a poly(amido)amine dendrimer selectively activates nonnuclear ER, and in mice, EDC does not invoke a uterotrophic response or support ER-positive breast cancer growth. In the present investigation, we employed EDC to determine how selective nonnuclear ER activation impacts atherosclerosis, adiposity, glucose homeostasis, and hepatic steatosis in female mice. In contrast to E2, EDC did not blunt atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic apoE-/- mice. Also in contrast to E2, EDC did not prevent the increase in adiposity caused by Western diet feeding in wild-type mice, and it did not affect Western diet-induced glucose intolerance. However, E2 and EDC had comparable favorable effect on diet-induced hepatic steatosis, and this was related to down-regulation of fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis genes in the liver. Predictably, only E2 caused a uterotrophic response. Thus, although nonnuclear ER activation does not prevent atherosclerosis or diet-induced obesity or glucose intolerance, it may provide a potential new strategy to combat hepatic steatosis without impacting the female reproductive tract or increasing cancer risk.

The cholesterol metabolite 27-hydroxycholesterol promotes atherosclerosis via proinflammatory processes mediated by estrogen receptor alpha.

Oxysterols are cholesterol metabolites that serve multiple functions in lipid metabolism, including as liver X receptor (LXR) ligands. 27-hydroxycholesterol (27HC) is an abundant oxysterol metabolized by CYP7B1. How 27HC impacts vascular health is unknown. We show that elevations in 27HC via cyp7b1 deletion promote atherosclerosis in apoe(-/-) mice without altering lipid status; furthermore, estrogen-related atheroprotection is attenuated. In wild-type mice, leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion is increased by 27HC via estrogen receptor (ER)-dependent processes. In monocytes/macrophages, 27HC upregulates proinflammatory genes and increases adhesion via ERα. In endothelial cells, 27HC is also proadhesive via ERα, and in contrast to estrogen, which blunts NF-κB activation, 27HC stimulates NF-κB activation via Erk1,2 and JNK-dependent IκBα degradation. Whereas 27HC administration to apoe(-/-) mice increases atherosclerosis, apoe(-/-);erα(-/-) are unaffected. Thus, 27HC promotes atherosclerosis via proinflammatory processes mediated by ERα, and it attenuates estrogen-related atheroprotection. Strategies to lower 27HC may complement approaches targeting cholesterol to prevent vascular disease.

LXRß/estrogen receptor-α signaling in lipid rafts preserves endothelial integrity.

Liver X receptors (LXR) are stimulated by cholesterol-derived oxysterols and serve as transcription factors to regulate gene expression in response to alterations in cholesterol. In the present study, we investigated the role of LXRs in vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and discovered that LXRß has nonnuclear function and stimulates EC migration by activating endothelial NOS (eNOS). This process is mediated by estrogen receptor-α (ERα). LXR activation promoted the direct binding of LXRß to the ligand-binding domain of ERα and initiated an extranuclear signaling cascade that requires ERα Ser118 phosphorylation by PI3K/AKT. Further studies revealed that LXRß and ERα are colocalized and functionally coupled in EC plasma membrane caveolae/lipid rafts. In isolated aortic rings, LXR activation of NOS caused relaxation, while in mice, LXR activation stimulated carotid artery reendothelialization via LXRß- and ERα-dependent processes. These studies demonstrate that LXRß has nonnuclear function in EC caveolae/lipid rafts that entails crosstalk with ERα, which promotes NO production and maintains endothelial monolayer integrity in vivo.

Structure and control of the actin regulatory WAVE complex.

Members of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family control cytoskeletal dynamics by promoting actin filament nucleation with the Arp2/3 complex. The WASP relative WAVE regulates lamellipodia formation within a 400-kilodalton, hetero-pentameric WAVE regulatory complex (WRC). The WRC is inactive towards the Arp2/3 complex, but can be stimulated by the Rac GTPase, kinases and phosphatidylinositols. Here we report the 2.3-ångstrom crystal structure of the WRC and complementary mechanistic analyses. The structure shows that the activity-bearing VCA motif of WAVE is sequestered by a combination of intramolecular and intermolecular contacts within the WRC. Rac and kinases appear to destabilize a WRC element that is necessary for VCA sequestration, suggesting the way in which these signals stimulate WRC activity towards the Arp2/3 complex. The spatial proximity of the Rac binding site and the large basic surface of the WRC suggests how the GTPase and phospholipids could cooperatively recruit the complex to membranes.

WASH and WAVE actin regulators of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family are controlled by analogous structurally related complexes.

We recently showed that the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family member, WASH, localizes to endosomal subdomains and regulates endocytic vesicle scission in an Arp2/3-dependent manner. Mechanisms regulating WASH activity are unknown. Here we show that WASH functions in cells within a 500 kDa core complex containing Strumpellin, FAM21, KIAA1033 (SWIP), and CCDC53. Although recombinant WASH is constitutively active toward the Arp2/3 complex, the reconstituted core assembly is inhibited, suggesting that it functions in cells to regulate actin dynamics through WASH. FAM21 interacts directly with CAPZ and inhibits its actin-capping activity. Four of the five core components show distant (approximately 15% amino acid sequence identify) but significant structural homology to components of a complex that negatively regulates the WASP family member, WAVE. Moreover, biochemical and electron microscopic analyses show that the WASH and WAVE complexes are structurally similar. Thus, these two distantly related WASP family members are controlled by analogous structurally related mechanisms. Strumpellin is mutated in the human disease hereditary spastic paraplegia, and its link to WASH suggests that misregulation of actin dynamics on endosomes may play a role in this disorder.

Structural and energetic mechanisms of cooperative autoinhibition and activation of Vav1.

Vav proteins are guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) for Rho family GTPases. They control processes including T cell activation, phagocytosis, and migration of normal and transformed cells. We report the structure and biophysical and cellular analyses of the five-domain autoinhibitory element of Vav1. The catalytic Dbl homology (DH) domain of Vav1 is controlled by two energetically coupled processes. The DH active site is directly, but weakly, inhibited by a helix from the adjacent Acidic domain. This core interaction is strengthened 10-fold by contacts of the calponin homology (CH) domain with the Acidic, pleckstrin homology, and DH domains. This construction enables efficient, stepwise relief of autoinhibition: initial phosphorylation events disrupt the modulatory CH contacts, facilitating phosphorylation of the inhibitory helix and consequent GEF activation. Our findings illustrate how the opposing requirements of strong suppression of activity and rapid kinetics of activation can be achieved in multidomain systems.

The WAVE regulatory complex is inhibited.

The WAVE regulatory complex (WRC) transmits information from the Rac GTPase to the actin nucleator Arp2/3 complex. We have reconstituted recombinant human and Drosophila WRC in several forms and shown that they are inactive toward Arp2/3 complex but can be activated by Rac in a nucleotide-dependent fashion. Our observations identify core components needed for WAVE inhibition, reconcile contradictory existing mechanisms and reveal common regulatory principles for the WAVE/WASP family of proteins.

Hierarchical regulation of WASP/WAVE proteins.

Members of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASP) family control actin dynamics in eukaryotic cells by stimulating the actin nucleating activity of the Arp2/3 complex. The prevailing paradigm for WASP regulation invokes allosteric relief of autoinhibition by diverse upstream activators. Here we demonstrate an additional level of regulation that is superimposed upon allostery: dimerization increases the affinity of active WASP species for Arp2/3 complex by up to 180-fold, greatly enhancing actin assembly by this system. This finding explains a large and apparently disparate set of observations under a common mechanistic framework. These include WASP activation by the bacterial effector EspFu and a large number of SH3 domain proteins, the effects on WASP of membrane localization/clustering and assembly into large complexes, and cooperativity between different family members. Allostery and dimerization act in hierarchical fashion, enabling WASP/WAVE proteins to integrate different classes of inputs to produce a wide range of cellular actin responses.